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BY II 

E.F. PHILLIPS 



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Ube IRurai Science Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



BEEKEEPING 



&ijc Eural Science Series 

Edited by L. H. Bailey 

The Soil. King. 

The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. 

Milk and its Products. Wing. Enlarged and Revised. 

The Fertility of the Land. Boberts. 

The Principles of Fruit-growing. Bailey. 20th 

Edition, Bevised. 
Bush-fruits. Card. 
Fertilizers. Voorhees. 
The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. 15th Edition, 

Bevised. 
Irrigation and Drainage. King. 
The Farmstead. Boberts. 
Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fairchild. 
The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. 
Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Bevised. 
The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. 
The Farmer's Business Handbook. Boberts. 
The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 
The Horse. Boberts. 
How to Choose a Farm. Hunt. 
Forage Crops. Voorhees. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 
The Nursery-book. Bailey. 
Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Bevised. 
The Forcing-book. Bailey. 
The Pruning-book. Bailey. 

Fruit-growing in Arid Regions. Paddock and Whipple. 
Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 
Dry-farming. Widtsoe. 
Law for the American Farmer. Green. 
Farm Boys and Girls. McKeever. 
The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. 
Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. 
Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 
The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. 
Household Insects. Herrick. 
Citrus Fruits. Coit. 

Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. 
Beekeeping. Phillips. 



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BEEKEEPING 



A DISCUSSION OF THE LIFE OF THE HONEYBEE 

AND OF THE PRODUCTION 

OF HONEY 



BY 



EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS, Ph.D. 

vr 

IN CHARGE Or BEE CULTURE INVESTIGATIONS, BUREAU 
OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPART- 
MENT OF AGRICULTURE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd, 
1915 

All rights reserved 



4 



COPYEIGHT, 1915, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1915. 



Nortoooti ^Press 

J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



ftUG 19 1915 

©CI.A410142 



Ho 

M. H. G. P. 



PREFACE 

The present book is the result of an effort to present a 
logical discussion of the various phases of the complex sub- 
ject of beekeeping. It was not planned as a book of rules 
to which one may go for directions for each day's work, for 
beekeeping cannot be treated correctly in such a way. The 
activities of bees vary during the seasons and no two localities 
present to the bees and their owners exactly the same environ- 
mental conditions, so that the successful beekeeper is one who 
has a knowledge of the activities of bees, whereby he can in- 
terpret what he sees in the hives from day to day, and who 
can mold the instincts of the bees to his convenience and profit. 

It has seemed desirable in the early chapters to discuss bees 
as they exist without man's interference, thus giving the foun- 
dation on which the practice of beekeeping rests. The bee- 
keeper is not especially interested in the anatomy of the bee 
and, while it is necessary to use illustrations of various organs 
and to describe them briefly, an effort has been made to treat 
the bee as a living animal and to have the discussion deal with 
physiology and especially with activities, in so far as investi- 
gations have thrown light on these processes. In the prepara- 
tion of the chapters devoted to the management of the apiary, 
an effort has been made to present the various systems of 
manipulations in such a way that the underlying principles 
shall be evident, rather than to attempt to describe each sys- 
tem as if it were separate. 

The author has been helped by the facilities of the office of 
the Bureau of Entomology with which he is connected and is 



viii Preface 

under obligations to Dr. Jas. A. Xelson and G-eorge S. Demuth 
for friendly advice and assistance. To E. Y. Coville, of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, thanks are due for assistance on 
the chapter on the sources of honey and to Dr. C. C. Miller for 
counsel on spring management and comb honey, on -which sub- 
jects he is the highest authority. Especially to his wife, the 
author would express his gratitude for most valuable help. 

The illustrations with a few exceptions were either drawn 
for this book from material gathered from many sources or 
have been borrowed from publications prepared in the office 
of bee culture investigations of the Bureau of Entomology. 
The new drawings are by J. E. Strauss. A few illustrations 
copied directly from other sources are credited individually. 

In presenting a book to American beekeepers, the author 

would express the hope that it may be as helpful to them as 

the cordial assistance and cooperation of many of them have 

been to him in his work. 

E. F. PHILLIPS. 

Washington, D.C., 
March, 1915. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 
BEEKEEPING AS AN OCCUPATION 

PAGES 

Two classes of beekeepers — Extent of beekeeping in the 
United States and Canada — The relation of apparatus to 
the development of beekeeping — Who should be a bee- 
keeper ? — Beekeeping for women — Advantages in exten- 
sive beekeeping — Where bees may be kept — Results to 
be expected 1-21 

CHAPTER II 

APPARATUS 

Relative importance of equipment and skill — Apiary- 
house— Hive stands — Hives and hive parts — Equipment 
for handling bees — Other equipment . 22-33 



CHAPTER III 

THE COLONY AND ITS ORGANIZATION 

The point of view — Danger from poor work — Advan- 
tage of experience in behavior investigation — Zoological 
position of the honeybee — Bees not domestic animals — 
Necessity of colonial life — Size of the colony — Types of 
individuals in a colony — Queen — Workers — Drones — 
Brood — Natural nest — Contents of the cells — Arrange- 
ment of the nest — Color of the combs — Protection of the 
nest — Comparison with stingless bees .... 34-53 

ix 



Contents 

CHAPTER IV 
THE CYCLE OE THE YEAR 

PAGES 

Brood-rearing — Brood-rearing during the season — Tem- 
perature of the hive — Swarming — Preparation for swarm- 
ing — Issuing of the swarm — Stimulus to leave the hive — 
Behavior of issuing swarm — Clustering — Supposed aids to 
clustering — Scouts — Entering the new home — Parent col- 
ony — Mating flight — After-swarms — Activity of swarms 

— Swarming conditions induced artificially — Peculiarities 
of bees in swarming — Causes of swarming — Swarming- 
out — Gathering of nectar and storing of honey — Collec- 
tion of other materials — Killing of the drones — End of 
brood-rearing — Winter cluster — Movements in winter — 
Responses to outside temperature — Conservation of heat 

— Source of heat — Effect of accumulation of feces . . 54-92 

CHAPTER V 

THE LIEE OE THE INDIVIDUAL IN RELATION 
TO THE COLONY 

Developmental stages — Cellular structure of tissues — 
Egg — Early embryonic development — Later embryonic 
development — Segmentation — Fate of parts of the embryo 

— Larval development — Metamorphosis — Length of devel- 
opmental stages — Cycle of duties of the adult worker bee 

— Division of labor — The labor within the hive — Comb 
building — Feeding of larvse — Composition of larval food 

— Feeding of queen and drones — Other inside work — The 
guarding of the colony — The labor outside the hive — Divi- 
sion of labor in gathering — Pollen gathering — Propolis col- 
lection — The collection of water — Duration of life — Work 
determines length of life — Practical applications — Possible 
determining factors 93-131 

CHAPTER VI 

THE LIFE PROCESSES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 

General plan of the body of the bee — Head — Thorax — 
Abdomen — Digestion — Circulation — Metabolism — Res- 
piration — Excretion — Locomotion — Protective apparatus 132-161 



Contents xi 

CHAPTER VII 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SENSES 

PAGES 

Nervous system — Sense organs — Sight — Smell — An- 
tennal sense organs — Taste — Touch — Hearing — Temper- 
ature sense — Finding of the flowers — Finding of the hive 

— Memory — Nature of bee activities 162-180 

CHAPTER VIII 

THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES AND PAR- 
THENOGENESIS 

Origin of the eggs — Origin of the male sex cells — Par- 
thenogenesis — Sex determination — Practical applications 

— Hermaphrodite bees — Eggs which fail to hatch . . 181-191 

CHAPTER IX 
RACES OF BEES 

Types of social bees — Species of the genus Apis — Vari- 
eties of the species mellifica — Egyptian — Syrian — Cyprian 

— Grecian — Caucasian — Italian — German — Carniolan — 
African races — Asiatic races — Chinese-Japanese — Best 

race of bees 192-204 

CHAPTER X 

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE 
UNITED STATES 

Variation in intensity of honey-flows — Variation in the 
value of plants — Beekeeping regions — General regions — 
The white clover region — The alfalfa region — The south- 
eastern region — The semi-arid region of the southwest — 
The sage region — Restricted regions — Buckwheat — Su- 
mac — Spanish needle — Willo wherb — Sweet clover — Blue 
thistle — Raspberry — Beans — Heartsease — Variation 
within a region — Distribution of bees in the United States 

— Migratory beekeeping — Overstocking — Dadant out- 
apiaries 205-221 



xii Contents 



CHAPTER XT 

THE FIRST STEPS IN BEEKEEPING 

Purchase of colonies — Purchase of bees to be shipped 
from a distance — Requirements in purchased colonies — 
How to learn beekeeping — Value of reading — Merits of 
beekeeping courses — Beginner's outfit .... 222-227 

CHAPTER XII 

THE APIARY SITE 

Apiary grounds — Exposure to the sun — Care of the api- 
ary grounds — Arrangement of hives — Number of colonies 
in one apiary — Out-apiaries — Conveniences less essential 
in out-apiaries 228-233 

CHAPTER XIII 

THE MANIPULATION OF BEES 

Disturbance to be reduced to a minimum — Equipment 
for manipulation — When to handle bees — Opening a hive 

— Remedies for stings — Removing frames — Handling 
frames — Desirability of straight combs in manipulations — 
Closing the hive — Occasional manipulations — Feeding — 
What to feed — Feeders — Uniting — Influence of hive odor 

— Learning the new location — Transferring — The best 
time to transfer colonies — Methods — Transferring from 
walls of houses — Transferring from hollow trees — Prevent- 
ing robbing in the apiary — Moving bees — Elimination of 
non-essential manipulations — Two essentials — Increase in 
efficiency through system 231-251 

CHAPTER XIV 
SPRING MANAGEMENT 

Object of spring manipulations — Prevention of drifting 

— Spring protection — First examinations — Cleaning the 
hives — Equalizing the colonies — Clipping queens — Sum- 
mary of favorable spring conditions — Questionable manipu- 
lations — Stimulative feeding — Spreading the brood — 
Substitutes for pollen 255-261 



Contents xiii 



CHAPTER XV 
SWARM CONTROL AND INCREASE 

PAGES 

Loss from division of the working force — Variation in 
swarming — Variation in colonies in respect to swarming 
preparations — Direction of the beekeeper's efforts — Pre- 
ventive measures — Breeding — Mechanical devices — Pre- 
ventive manipulations — Miller's methods — Remedial meas- 
ures — Control of natural swarms — Automatic hi vers 

— Location for the swarm — Disposition of the brood after 
swarming — What to use in the brood chamber in hiving 
swarms — Remedial manipulations — Unbalanced condition 
of swarming colonies- — Break in the emergence of brood — 
Requeening combined with dequeening — Removal of brood 

— Mechanical appliances — Increase 265-285 

CHAPTER XVI 

THE PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY 

Increase in the production of extracted-honey — Advan- 
tages of extracted-honey — Disadvantages of extracted-honey 

— Extracted-honey hives — Choice of storage combs — Use 
of extracting combs smaller than brood combs — Number 
of supers — Manipulation of supers — Need of abundance of 
drawn combs — System in producing extracted-honey — Re- 
moving honey from the bees — House for extracting — 
Portable extracting outfits — Uncapping — Cans for cappings 

— Capping melters — Types of extractors — Extracting — 
Straining the honey — Storage tanks — Reduction of the 

lifting of honey — Returning combs to the hives . . . 286-300 

CHAPTER XVII 

THE PRODUCTION OF COMB-HONEY 

Purity of comb-honey — The "Wiley lie" — Decrease 
in comb-honey production — Demand for fancy comb-honey 

— Advantages of comb-honey — Disadvantages of comb- 
honey — Restrictions in comb-honey production — Honey- 
house — The best hive for comb-honey — The early devel- 
opment of the section — Types of sections — Types of supers 

— Other equipment — Preparation of the sections — Manip- 



xiv Contents 



ulation of the bees — Keeping bees in proper condition — 
Manipulation of supers — Removal of supers — Caring for 
the crop — Preparation of bait sections — Storage in supers 

— Bulk comb-honey — Bulk comb-honey for home use — 

Cut comb-honey for market 301-319 

CHAPTER XVIII 
MARKETING THE HONEY CROP 

Preparation of extracted-honey for market — Wholesale 
packages — Retail packages for local markets — High-class 
retail packages — Blending — Argument for blending — 
Heating honey — Preparation of comb-honey for market — 
Cleaning the sections of propolis — Grading — Shipping 
cases — Glazed sections — Use of cartons — Shipping comb- 
honey — Preparation of bulk comb-honey for market — Prep- 
aration of granulated honey for market — Wording of labels 

— Development of the home market — Co-operative selling 320-333 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE PRODUCTION AND CARE OF BEESWAX 

Rendering the wax — Wax presses — The residue — Re- 
moving wax by dissolving — Cleaning wax — Granulation 
of wax — Bleaching wax — Adulteration of wax — Prepara- 
tion of wax for market — Special production of wax — Uses 
of beeswax 334-342 

CHAPTER XX 
THE CARE OF BEES IN WINTER 

Losses in winter — Object of winter protection — Require- 
ments of successful wintering — Winter stores — Cause and 
effects of humidity in the hive — Effects of ventilation — 
Source of heat and effects of changes of temperature — Dis- 
turbance — Methods of wintering bees — Outdoor wintering 
— Cellar wintering — Effects of confinement — Spring dwin- 
dling 343-358 



Contents xv 

CHAPTER XXI 
THE SOURCES OF NECTAR AND POLLEN 

PAGES 

Reasons for knowledge of nectar sources — Difficulties of 
identification — Study of neighboring locations — Function 
of nectar — Variations in nectar — Variations in secretion 
—Effects of climatic conditions on secretion — Advantages 
of swamp sources — Cultivation of plants for nectar — Value 
of the minor sources — Gathering of pollen — Value of bees 
in cross-pollination — Damaging effects of incorrect spray- 
ing — Bees do not puncture ripe fruit — Supposedly poison- 
ous honeys — Plant honey-dews — Insect honey-dew — 
Annotated list of honey-plants 359-396 

CHAPTER XXII 
BEE DISEASES AND ENEMIES 

Brood diseases — American foul brood — European foul 
brood — Sacbrood or pickled brood — Methods of spread — 
Treatment — Shaking treatment — Fall treatment — Addi- 
tional treatment for European foul brood — Diseases of 
adult bees — Dysentery — Nosema disease — Paralysis — 
Spring dwindling — Enemies of bees — The wax-moth ( Gal- 
leria mellonella) — The lesser wax-moth (Achroia grissella) 

— Remedies — Other enemies 397-416 

CHAPTER XXIII 
THE REARING OF QUEENS 

Commercial queen-rearing — Systematic requeening — 
Conditions under which queens are reared — Saving natural 
queen cells — Having natural cells built — Miller method 

— Alley method — Hopkins method — Queen cells on 
artificial bases — Transferring larvae — Swarm box — 
Having cells built out — Nursery cages — Mating hives — 
Classification of queens — Mailing cages — Introducing 
queens — Improvement of stock — Study of breeding needed 

— Selection of drones — Desirability of pure races — 
Danger from inbreeding 417-429 



xvi Contents 

CHAPTER XXIV 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

PAGES 

Literature on bees and beekeeping — Organizations of 
beekeepers — Laws — Supplies for beekeepers — The uses of 
honey— Honey crop reports — Educational work in bee- 
keeping — The Bureau of Entomology 430-437 

APPENDIX 

Explanation of Symbols used in Anatomical Illustrations 439-448 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Note. — Illustrations marked by asterisk are from Farmers' Bulletins 
Nos. 442 and 447 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Other illustra- 
tions are credited by authors individually. 

Apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, Drummond, Md. . Frontispiece 

FICr. PAGE 

1. A primitive box-hive 1 

2. A bee and apple blossoms 5 

3. Mud hives in Palestine. (From photograph by Metcalf) . . 5 

4. Group of Caucasian hives 6 

5. An old Greek hive. (From Wheler, 1682) .... 6 

6. Gravenhorst hive, a combination of skep and frame-hive . . 7 

7. German hive, opening at the rear ...... 7 

8. Bee-house in Carniola, Austria 8 

9. Carniolan hive 9 

10. Bee-house mentioned in u The Hoosier School Boy " . . 9 

11. W. B. C. hive of England 10 

12. C. D. B. hive of Ireland 11 

13. Frame of C. D. B. hive . . 11 

14. A woman beekeeper . . . . . . . . .15 

15. Roof apiary in lower New York City. (Drawn from photograph 

by Hoot) 18 

16. Apiary on shed roof, to economize space ..... 19 

17. Tropical apiary, San Sabastian, Porto Rico . . . .19 

18. Honey-house cloor 24 

19. Porter bee escape *...'....... 24 

20. Ten-frame Langstroth hive with queen excluder, comb-honey 

super and telescope cover * 26 

21. Diagram showing spacing of frame and rabbet in Langstroth hive 27 

22. Spacing of Hoffman frames 28 

23. Spur wire-imbedder * .29 

24. Smoker* 29 

25. German beekeeper's pipe . 30 

26. Cotton netting veil with silk tulle front* 31 

27. Hive tools * 31 

28. German bee brush * 31 

xvii 



xviii Illustrations 

FIG. PAGE 

29. Tool-box seat . . . 32 

30. Alley queen and drone trap * . . . ' . . . .32 

31. Bee escape board * 32 

32. Comb-foundation cutter 33 

33. Van Deusen hive clamp 33 

34. The honeybee : worker, queen and drone* .... 40 

35. The honeybee : egg, young larva, old larva and pupa * . . 40 
•36. Structure of comb * 47 

37. Piece of new comb showing transition cells * .... 48 

38. Queen cell 49 

39. Cappings of brood . . .50 

40. Capping of honey . . . . . . . Facing page 51 

41. Colony in the open air Facing page 51 

42. Eggs in cells of the comb Facing page 55 

43. Larvae in cells of the comb, almost full grown . . Facing page 55 

44. Concentric arrangement of the brood 57 

45. Group of queen cells * . • 62 

46. A swarm cluster ........ Facing page 65 

47. Swarm catcher Facing page 67 

48. Capturing a swarm Facing page 65 

49. Swarm entering a hive Facing page 68 

50. Group of tissue cells from skin of young salamander. (From 

Nelson) 95 

51. Three stages in the development of the embryo. (From Nelson) 97 

52. Diagram of a longitudinal median section of a bee larva. (From 

Nelson) 100 

53. Ventral plates of the abdomen of a worker bee. (From Casteel) 108 

54. Inner surface of the left hind leg of a worker bee showing a wax- 

scale. (From Casteel) 108 

55. Ventral view of worker removing wax-scale. (From Casteel) . 109 

56. Side view of worker removing wax-scale. (From Casteel ) . 109 

57. Ventral view of worker passing wax-scale forward. (From 

Casteel) 110 

58. Side view of worker passing wax-scale forward. (From Casteel). 110 

59. Median longitudinal section of head of worker, showing the 

glands. (From Snodgrass) Ill 

60. Alimentary canal of worker, showing glands. (From Snod- 

grass) 112 

61. Longitudinal median section of base of oesophagus. (From 

Snodgrass) 113 



Illustrations xix 

FIG. PAGE 

62. Lizard encased in propolis 117 

63. Outer surface of the left hind leg of a worker. (From Casteel) 124 

64. Flying bee, showing movements of legs in pollen collecting. 

(From Casteel) 124 

65. Flying bee patting pollen on the pollen basket. (From 

Casteel) 124 

6Q. Inner surface of the left hind leg of worker. (From Casteel) . 125 

67. Flying bee loading the pollen baskets. (From Casteel) . . 125 

68. Front and back views of head of worker bee. (From Snod- 

grass) . 134 

69. Anterior views of head of worker, queen and drone. (From 

Snodgrass) . . . . . . . . . 135 

70. Right mandibles of worker and drone. (From Snodgrass) . 136 

71. Internal mandibular gland of worker. (From Snodgrass) . 136 

72. Mouth parts of the worker. (From Snodgrass) . . . 137 

73. Dorsal view of ventral wall and internal skeleton of worker. 

(From Snodgrass) 139 

74. Thorax of worker. (From Snodgrass) 140 

75. Lateral view of abdomen of worker. (From Snodgrass) . . 140 

76. Tip of abdomen of worker with left side removed. (From 

Snodgrass) . . . . *,' 141 

77. Histological details of alim^fcry'canal. (From Snodgrass) . 145 

78. Longitudinal median verticil section of body of worker. (From 

SnodgralSs) 149 

79. Tracheal system of worker. (From Snodgrass) . . . 152 

80. Fore and hind wings*. (From Snodgrass) 155 

81. Legs of worker, queentjand drone. (From Snodgrass) . . 156 

82. Claws. (From Snodgriss) .157 

83. Ventral view of sting of worker and accessory parts. (From 

Snodgrass) 159 

84. Nervous system of worker. (From Snodgrass) .... 163 

85. Brain and subcesophageal ganglion of worker. (From Snod- 

grass) 164 

86. Section of compound eye and optic lobe 166 

87. Section of entire ommatidium 167 

88. Location of groups of olfactory pores — dorsal view. (From 

Mclndoo) 170 

89. Location of groups of olfactory pores — ventral view. (From 

Mclndoo) 171 

90. Cross-section of typical olfactory pore. (From Mclndoo) . . 172 



xx Illustrations 



91. Antennal organs. (Copied from Mclndoo, after Schenk) . 173 

92. Reproductive organs, sting and poison glands of queen. (From 

Snodgrass) 182 

93. Reproductive organs of drone. (From Snodgrass) . . . 185 

94. Propolis at entrance, built by Caucasian bees .... 197 

95. Map of Florida showing distribution of honey plants. (From 

Baldwin) . 210 

96. Map of United States, showing distribution of colonies of bees 

(Redrawn from map furnished by Bureau of Crop Esti- 
mates, U. S. D. A.) 214 

97. Map showing distribution of Dadant apiaries. (Redrawn from 

Dadant) 220 

98. Apiary in the West, shaded by thatched shed. (Redrawn from 

Root) 230 

99. Former apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, College Park, Md.* 231 

100. Hive-body resting on cover 23(5 

101. Handling a frame, first position * ...... 238 

102. Handling a frame, second position * . ..... 238 

103. Handling a frame, third position* 238 

104. Hive leveling device 239 

105. Division board (Doolittle) feeder * 242 

106. Alexander feeder in collar under hive-body * . . . . 242 

107. " Pepper-box " feeder * 242 

108. Pan in super arranged for feeding * 242 

109. Cutting combs from a box-hive 246 

110. Hive ready for moving ........ 250 

111. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony — first posi- 

tion. (From Demuth) . . . . . . 275 

112. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony — second 

position. (From Demuth) ....... 275 

113. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony — third 

position. (From Demuth) . . . . . . . 276 

114. Manipulation to reduce population of parent colony — fourth 

position. (From Demuth) 276 

115. Queen excluder ("honey board ") 277 

116. Uncapping knives * 293 

117. Steam-heated uncapping knife 294 

118. Comb for uncapping — used in Europe 294 

119. Capping melter 295 

120. Tank to receive cappings . 295 



Illustrations xxi 

FIO. PAGE 

121. Extractor with stationary can * ..... 296 

122. Power extracting outfit. (Photo by Root) . Facing page 297 

123. Honey strainer. (Redrawn from Root) . . . . . 298 

124. Honey storage tanks. (Drawn from photograph by Root) . 299 

125. Diagram to show method of spacing bee-way sections. (From 

Demuth) 308 

126. Diagram to show method of spacing plain sections. (From 

Demuth) 308 

127. Comparison of plain and bee-way sections. (From Demuth) . 308 

128. Comparison of tall and square sections of equal capacity. (From 

Demuth) 309 

129. T-super. (From Demuth) 309 

130. Super for square bee-way sections with section holders. (From 

Demuth) 309 

131. Super for square plain sections with section holders. (From 

Demuth) '. . .310 

132. Super for tall plain sections. (From Demuth) . . . 310 

133. Super for tall plain sections in wide frames. (From Demuth) 310 

134. Old type of wide frame for holding sections. (Drawn from 

Miller) 311 

135. Section folder 312 

136. Diagram showing the arrangement of the supers. (From 

Demuth) 315 

137. Crate holding two 5-gallon honey cans * ..... 321 

138. Shipping cases for comb-honey *...... 328 

139. Double boiler for melting combs 335 

140. Hot water (Hershiser) wax press . . . . . . 336 

141 . Diagram showing the response of a colony of bees to changes 

in outer temperature. (From Phillips and Demuth) . . 348 

142. An apiary in winter . 350 

143. Roof of a bee-cellar away from a house 353 

144. Arrangement of hives in a cellar. (Drawn from Alexander) 354 

145. Diagram showing the effects of an accumulation of feces. (From 

Phillips and Demuth) ........ 357 

146. Alfalfa 373 

147. Basswcod 375 

148. Buckwheat . . . ... . . . - . .377 

149. Spicier flower (Cleome) 378 

150. Cotton 379 

151. Dandelion .......... 380 



xxii Illustrations 



FIG. PAGE 

152. Heartsease . . . 382 

153. Horsemint . 383 

154. Locust . 384 

155. Partridge pea , 387 

156. Button sage 389 

157. White sage 390 

158. Sourwood 390 

159. Sweet clover 392 

160. Tulip poplar 393 

161. White clover 394 

162. Willowherb . . .395 

163. American foul brood * ..... 398 

164. The ropiness of American foul brood * 399 

165. American foul brood comb* 399 

166. Apiary in southern California which was practically destroyed 

by disease 400 

167. European foul brood * ..401 

168. Apparatus for the shaking treatment *..... 405 

169. Gasoline torch * 406 

170. Wax-moth, in natural position at rest 411 

171. Wax-moth, male 411 

172. Wax-moth, female 412 

173. Work of wax-moth larvae on comb * . . Facing page 412 

174. Larva of wax-moth „ 412 

175. Eggs of wax-moth laid on top -bar of frame .... 412 

176. Pupa of wax-moth 413 

177. Cocoons of wax-moth 413 

178. Lesser wax-moth in natural position ..... 414 

179. Lesser wax-moth, male ........ 414 

180. Lesser wax-moth, female ....... 414 

181. Lesser wax-moth, larva 415 

182. Lesser wax-moth, pupa 415 

183. Hive stand to keep off ants 415 

184. Comb cut for starting queen cells by the Alley method . . 420 

185. Queen cells reared by the Hopkins method .... 421 

186. Swarm box for starting queen cells 423 

187. Pratt nursery 424 

188. Queen mating hive 424 

189. "Baby nucleus" hive devised by Pratt 425 

190. Queen mailing cage * 426 



BEEKEEPING 



BEEKEEPING- 



chapter i 



BEEKEEPING AS AN OCCUPATION 



The keeping of bees for the pleasure derived from studying 
them and also for the profit arising from their products* is- 
the vocation or avocation 
of many thousands of peo- 
ple in all sections of the 
United States and Canada. 
In former times, the bee- 
hive, or more properly the 
skep, "gum" or box-hive 
(Fig. 1), was found on al- 
most every farm, in im- 
portance occupying a place 
similar to that which poul- 
try does to-day. Then as 
now, beekeeping was usu- 
ally not the sole business 
of those interested. The 
number of farmer-beekeep- 
ers is now being reduced 
in most parts of the 
United States and bees are 







Fig. 1. — A primitive box-hive. 



no longer quite so commonly seen in the country as in 
earlier days. 



2 Beekeeping 

Two classes of beekeepers. 

By one of those curious shiftings which are so frequent in 
human activities, beekeeping is coming more and more to 
be restricted to two rather distinct classes of beekeepers. 
Of these the more important numerically is composed of the 
so-called amateur beekeepers, who keep a few colonies pri- 
marily for recreation and only incidentally for honey for 
home use and perhaps a little to sell locally. The amateur 
ranks are now made up to a large extent of dwellers in towns, 
cities and suburbs. The other class, on which the honey- 
consuming public must chiefly depend, is that of the profes- 
sional or specialist beekeeper, whose chief if not sole business 
is honey-production, and who is often a resident of a town or 
city. Various factors, to be discussed later, make it increas- 
ingly desirable that commercial honey-production be carried 
on by experts, by men who are mentally equipped and trained 
to get maximum results. While the present tendency is, of 
necessity, toward the keeping of bees by professional bee- 
keepers, there will always be thousands belonging to the 
amateur class, and it is by no means intended in the present 
discussion of the subject to leave out of consideration the 
enthusiast who desires to keep a few colonies for pleasure. 
It is probable that the larger part of our present professional 
beekeepers began as amateurs, rather than as farmer-bee- 
keepers, and, in all likelihood, the extensive producers of the 
future will be recruited from the suburbanites and nature- 
lovers who now keep bees for the enjoyment they get from 
them, with little present thought of future gain. 

This source of future commercial beekeepers seems all the 
more probable since it is difficult to begin beekeeping on a 
large scale. The many minor details which go to make up 
success in getting maximum crops cannot come solely from 
reading nor can the needed information be bought with the 
apiary. A small beginning is strongly to be advised and, as 
the novice grows in experience, the colonies may be increased 
in number. It is a commendable plan to make the bees pay 
for themselves, almost from the start, as well as for the addi- 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 3, 

tional apparatus needed in increasing the apiary. This they 
will do in the average locality, as well as show some profit. 
If the work then proves congenial, the transition from ama- 
teur to professional is often so gradual as scarcely to be recog- 
nized. 

Those beekeepers who are also engaged in general farming 
or who specialize in one or two farm crops are usually too 
busy elsewhere to give the bees the necessary attention at the 
time when they most require it and consequently few of this 
class of beekeepers rise to the ranks of the specialists. This 
is not so true of amateur beekeepers, since some of the 
many occupations which they follow usually permit the 
time and study necessary to the making of the proficient 
beekeeper. 

No genuine beekeeper will admit that any other occupation 
is more interesting than the care of bees. In fact, beekeepers 
are, in a sense, bound together by a common tie in their in- 
terest in bees, and this sense of union finds expression in their 
conventions, in the fraternal tone of their articles in the 
journals devoted to bee-culture and in their intimacy with 
each other. This sympathy arises from the fact that they 
recognize the fascination in the study of the bees and possess 
in common an absorbing interest in an insect which from the 
earliest times has aroused the curiosity of mankind. For 
the amateur beekeeper, this study has the marked advan- 
tage of being a recreation which pays its own way and, under 
proper conditions, produces no mean profit. 

Beekeeping is from its very nature one of the minor 
branches of agriculture. It is the means of conserving for 
human use the nectar of the multitude of flowers, which is 
usually so abundantly secreted in all sections of the country, 
and which, if not collected by the bees, is immediately lost. 

The raw material of honey costs the beekeeper nothing. 
The proper care of the bees in order to obtain the maximum 
crop and the preparation of the product of their labors for 
market take time and study, but for these the beekeeper is 
well repaid by the returns. 



4 Beekeeping 

Extent of beekeeping in the United States and Canada. 

It is usually not realized that beekeeping has so many 
followers. Unfortunately, no thoroughly reliable data are 
available as to the number of persons engaged in this pursuit, 
but careful and seemingly conservative estimates place the 
number at about 800,000 in the United States. The average 
number of colonies owned is small, probably not more than 
ten, so that many of these persons are interested to only a 
slight degree. However, the aggregate crop is sufficiently 
great to cause surprise to one unfamiliar with the industry. 
The value of the average annual crop of honey in the United 
States amounts to at least $20,000,000 while the beeswax 
produced is valued at about $2,000,000. It should be em- 
phasized that these estimates are conservative. 

The Census figures for Canada are seemingly as faulty as 
those for the United States. For example, the 1911 Census 
shows 124,237 colonies in Ontario, whereas, according to 
Morley Pettit, provincial apiarist, the number should be 
about 300,000. The total value of the honey and wax crop, 
according to the Census of 1911, is given as $713,250, but 
it is seemingly safe to state that Canada now produces a 
crop about one-tenth that of the United States. The in- 
dustry is steadily growing, especially in the provinces where 
the beekeepers are helped by inspection and instruction, 
as they are in Ontario. 

There is unquestionably great opportunity for the further 
development of the industry. Various writers have ven- 
tured estimates as to the amount of nectar now out of range 
of sufficient bees to gather it. These guesses have varied 
enormously, some stating that perhaps half the nectar 
secreted is wasted, while others, perhaps nearer the truth, 
have claimed that not more than one-twentieth is saved. 
In all the country, there are but few places where too man}^ 
bees are kept and it is doubtless conservative to venture 
an estimate that ten times the present honey crop could 
be produced with profit. 

There is a fear commonly expressed by professional bee- 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 



keepers in their conven- 
tions and elsewhere that 
the honey market will be 
overstocked if any greater 
crops are produced. This 
fear is ungrounded. A 
few dealers are now at- 
tempting to supply their 
customers with honey 
throughout the year, al- 
though usually the honey 
crop is sold so quickly that 
it is found on the market 
only between the time of 
harvesting the crop and the 

holiday season. It must Fig. 2. — A bee and apple blos- 




soms. Bees are valuable as agents 
of cross-pollination. 



also be remembered that 
in many families honey 
is almost unknown as a 

food, not because it is not relished but because the present 
supply is so limited that it never comes to the attention 

of the housewife. 
Furthermore, bakers 
and confectioners are 
using an increasing 
amount of honey 
for manufacturing 
purposes, especially 
honeys of the darker 
grades. With such 
conditions of the 
honey market, there 
need be no fear of 
overproduction, even 
though the beekeep- 
ers take full advantage of the nectar supply, in so far as it 
is profitable. 




Fig. 3. — Mud hives in Palestine. 



Beekeeping 



In addition to the value of the honeybee as a honey- 
producer, it has a value to agriculture which is probably far 

greater. Peculiarly 
enough, the bee- 
keeper is usually not 
the one who receives 
the greatest profit 
from the presence of 
his bees in the com- 
munity. The honey- 
bee is one of the 
most beneficial of 
those insects which 
carry pollen from one 
flower to another. 
Such cross-pollina- 
tion is frequently es- 
sential to the pro- 
duction of fruit and, 
among all the insects 
which serve the fruit- 
grower, the honeybee 
occupies a unique 
position. In the spring, the time when their services are 
most needed, other insects are often few in number and 
there is no way of prop- 
agating them. In the 
case of the honeybee, 
however, it is relatively 
easy to carry to the or- 
chard thousands of in- 
sects, which are ready, in 
favorable weather, to aid 
the fruit-grower in return 
for the small amount of 
nectar obtained (Fig. 2). 
In many orchards the 




Fig. 4. — Group of Caucasian hives. 




Fig. 5. — An old Greek hive. 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 




Fig. 



Gravenhorst hive, a combination of 
skep and frame-hive. 



greater part of the 
fruit set is the result 
of the labors of the 
honeybee, and many 
fruit-growers are 
taking up beekeep- 
ing solely for its use- 
fulness in this re- 
gard. It is conserva- 
tively estimated 
that the honeybee is 
more valuable to 
American agriculture 
in its work of cross- 
pollinating than it is 
as a honey-producer. 
In all matters per- 
taining to the advancement of the beekeeping industry the 
beekeeper should therefore find a warm ally in the fruit-grower. 

Relation of apparatus to the development of beekeeping. 

It may perhaps be considered as characteristic of human 
endeavor that when a new piece of apparatus is invented 

it is first made as com- 
plex as possible and, if it 
becomes widely adopted 
and is used commercially, 
much of the later develop- 
ment is in the direction of 
simplification. This is cer- 
tainly true of the appar- 
atus used by the beekeeper, 
and the stage of the de- 
velopment of the industry 
in any country may be 
approximately judged by the complexity of the apparatus 
used. 




Fig. 



7. — German hive, opening at the 
rear. 



8 



Beekeeping 



The primitive method of keeping bees consisted simply 
of giving them some kind of cavity in which to live. Such 
hives are exemplified in the mud hives of the Palestine 
beekeeper (Fig. 3), and the straw skeps of the old-time 
European beekeeper. The interesting collection of hives 
shown in Fig. 4 is drawn from a photograph sent the author 
by J. de Dieterichs, Nucha, Caucasus, Russia, these hives 
being types used in that country. To our discredit, it must 




Fig. 



Bee-house in Carniola, Austria. 



be admitted that in parts of America the box-hive (Fig. 1) 
or "gum" has not been eliminated. With such crude 
equipment, beekeeping as a business is not possible. 

With the invention of the movable-frame hive by Langs- 
troth, around which so much of this book centers, the de- 
velopment of practical beekeeping began. This type of 
hive was promptly adopted by German beekeepers, since 
the previous rediscovery of the bar-hive b}^ the great bee- 
keeper Dzierzon had prepared them for it. The bar-hive 
had, however, been used centuries before in Greece (Fig. 5). 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 



9 




Carniolan hive. 



To utilize the principle of the frame-hive without departing 
too radically from the skep, the Gravenhorst hive (Fig. 6) 
was adopted by many 
Germans. Its defi- 
ciencies are at once 
obvious from the il- 
lustration. 

With the adoption 
of the fundamental 
principle of the frame- 
hive, the types of hive 
developed along two 
main lines. The 
original frame-hive of the German beekeepers, following 
the example of Dzierzon, opened at the rear, and this 
type (Fig. 7) is still much used. Its construction prevents 
adequate expansion of the brood-chamber and of the room 
for surplus, which are of such vital importance with modern 
American manipulations. Such hives are ill suited to 

American condi- 
tions and are 
apparently losing 
ground abroad. 

In connection 
with these hives 
as well as with 
some other local 
types, the Ger- 
man, Austrian 
and Swiss bee- 
keepers often 
keep their bees 
in elaborately 
ornamented bee- 
houses (Fig. 8), 
each colony of course having its own hive (Fig. 9). This 
has been tried to a limited extent by American bee- 




Fig. 10. 



Bee-house mentioned in " The Hoosier 
School Boy." 



10 



Beekeeping 



keepers, and bee-houses may still be seen in parts of the 
country. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 10) is drawn 
from a photograph by Geo. S. Demuth of fe the bee-house in 
Eggleston's "Hoosier School Boy," still standing near Madi- 
son, Indiana. For a time the author was obliged to use 
such a house, far less elaborate however than those often 
built by the bee-enthusiasts of Europe. The house-apiary 
is cozy and for certain manipulations, such as queen-rearing, 

is convenient, but 
the extensive Amer- 
ican beekeeper 
would find it impos- 
sible to produce his 
large crops in such 
quarters. The 
house-apiary, as 
usually constructed, 
like the hive open- 
ing at the back, 
limits the expansion 
of the hive and is 
therefore disadvan- 
tageous. 

The other type of 
hive, opening at the 
top, has been ex- 
tensively adopted in 
Europe, as exemplified by the W.B.C. hive (Fig. 11) of 
England, the C.D.B. hive (Figs. 12 and 13) of Ireland 
and the modified Dadant hive so much used on the con- 
tinent of Europe. It will be seen from the illustrations 
that these hives are less simple than those used in Amer- 
ica. The chief objection, as viewed from American 
conditions, is a lack of room for expansion, although the 
complexity of these hives would seriously interfere with the 
work of an extensive American beekeeper when in the middle 
of a heavy honey-flow. The type of hive which we may 




W.B.C. hive of England. 



Beekeepi?ig as an Occupation 



11 



properly call typically American (Fig. 20) is a simple box, 
with freely movable but accurately spaced frames, capable 
of any amount of expan- 
sion. It is a most efficient 
tool for the beekeeper and 
as fine a home for the bees 
as any hive ever made. It 
is readily moved, easily 
packed for the winter and 
these and other advantages 
come chiefly from the se- 
vere simplicity which is de- 
manded by business bee- 
keepers. The American 
beekeeper has, therefore, no 
reason to envy his co- 
workers abroad their elab- 
orate and often attractive 
hives. 

This comparison of equip- 
ment serves to make clear 

why beekeeping as a profitable business is possible in the 
United States and, in turn, the simplicity of the hive is 
doubtless due to the demands of practical men. The origi- 
nal Langstroth hive 
was much more 
elaborate than our 
present hives and, 
with the advance 
of the industry, all 
the superfluous 
parts of the hive 
have been removed 
one by one. The 
present hive, there- 
fore, typifies American apiculture of the present day. 
There are still some hives used in the United States which 




Fig. 12. — C.D.B. hive of Ireland. 




Fig. 13. — Frame of C.D.B. hive. 



12 Beekeeping 

are less simple than the hive here mentioned, but such 
hives are usually of brief popularity or are adapted for a 
limited number of beekeepers. 

In future references to apparatus in this book, emphasis 
is placed on the fact that tools alone do not suffice but that 
the prime essential to business beekeeping is knowledge 
of the bees. However, it is only just to give credit to our 
apparatus as the best lot of tools ever devised for beekeeping 
work. The American manufacturers of beekeeping supplies 
are to be commended for their efforts to make the apparatus 
simple and to a large degree standard. The American bee- 
keeper is to this extent far in advance of beekeepers else- 
where. The American apparatus is standard in Australia. 

These remarks are not intended as derogatory of European 
beekeeping. The American beekeeper owes much of his 
scientific knowledge of bees to European investigators and 
beekeepers. It is nevertheless true that commercial bee- 
keeping is an American institution. 

Who should be a beekeeper f 

Beekeeping is a peculiar occupation in that it can be 
followed in town or country, by young or old, by rich or 
poor. Many women are numbered among the ranks of 
beekeepers. To the professional or business man, it offers 
a change from the confinement of office or laboratory. To 
the mechanic, it serves equally as well for recreation. Many 
teachers find it a desirable occupation during vacation, at 
which time it adds not a little to the meager incomes pro- 
vided by parsimonious school-boards. Lawyers, artists, 
farmers, ministers, merchants, brokers, professors in uni- 
versities and laborers are numbered among its devotees. 
Several old men known to the writer are kept mentally 
alert by their work and interest in the bees, while one boy 
friend of eight summers is a veteran in enthusiasm. Among 
the ranks of professional beekeepers are found well-educated 
and uneducated men of all ages and with all the mental and 
physical defects or advantages in the category. 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 13 

With such an array, it may seem fruitless to ask who 
should be beekeepers. The care of bees is not, however, 
equally well suited to all persons, and it would save much 
disappointment, both financial and otherwise, if this ques- 
tion were more frequently asked before embarking on this 
business. First of all should be excluded those persons 
who are seriously affected by the poison of bee-stings. To 
some people, this is a serious matter and, unless it is im- 
perative that they care for bees, it is better for them not to 
undertake it. To practically all beginners, the stings are 
annojdng, and the experienced beekeeper, however much he 
may brag of his indifference to stings, still suffers as much 
pain from the prick as he did at first. With time and numer- 
ous stings, an immunity to the poison is developed which 
eliminates the after-swelling, which is the most annoying 
feature of the stinging. Nervous persons who cannot take 
stings without excitement would do better to keep away 
from bees, as there are times when the best of beekeepers 
will be punctured. 

To carry on beekeeping with interest and profit requires 
an intimate study of the bees and a detailed knowledge of 
their needs. It further requires a knowledge of the plants 
from which they gather nectar so that the necessary steps 
may be taken to get the colonies in proper condition for the 
work required of them. To be a good beekeeper, one must 
read and re-read the books and journals pertaining to the 
subject, for each reading, accompanied by additional ex- 
perience among the bees, brings out some new point which 
proves important in the practical work. Furthermore, 
the beekeeper cannot work by rule of thumb. Bees are 
living, lively animals and may be " expected to do the un- 
expected," as beekeepers so often express it. For this 
reason, it is necessary for the beekeeper to know the be- 
havior of bees in all its phases and in so far as they have 
been determined, which is not far, the causes of their various 
activities. Obviously, the successful beekeeper is a naturalist 
and such persons are born, not made successfully. Patience, 



14 Beekeeping 

power of concentration and sympathetic understanding of 
the bees are essentials and, as a result, the bees become pets 
rather than beasts of burden to the true bee-crank. Per- 
sons who fail to appreciate bees from this point of view will 
probably find it more pleasant and profitable to let them 
alone. Like all general statements about bees, there are 
exceptions to this one. Some who are financially successful 
beekeepers are totally devoid of sympathetic interest in 
bees and have learned to handle bees as it were by force. 
Such men are out of place as amateur beekeepers and in- 
deed fail to reach the highest success as professionals. 

The ardent bee-man finds pleasure in comparing expe- 
riences and observations with his co-workers, in conventions 
and out, and some of the best " conventions" are those in 
which two or three experienced beekeepers spend half or 
more of the night in talking over their latest ideas. They 
discuss new and supposedly improved apparatus and all 
the latest systems of manipulation, for there seem to be 
styles and fads in beekeeping as in clothes. The man who 
fails to find pleasure in such an interchange of views will 
find himself out of place among bee-enthusiasts. 

Not only is a knowledge of what to do necessary to success 
with bees, but it is equally necessary that the right thing 
be done at the right time. To put on comb-honey supers 
too late, to delay the necessary steps in swarm control or 
to neglect the preparation of bees for winter, all mean loss 
in bees, honey and money. In the make-up of the beekeeper 
must be promptness to do the things which his experience 
teaches. In the hands of the wise, the bees need remark- 
ably little attention. They should not be manipulated 
daily and the hive is better unopened unless some change 
is called for. The beginner errs almost universally in over- 
manipulation. It must not be forgotten, however, that the 
reduction in handling which comes with experience is not 
neglect, and the beekeeper must know daily whether the 
condition of the nectar-secreting plants or of his colonies 
calls for any manipulation. This requires experience and 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 



15 



observation and finally promptness in doing what is 
necessary. 

Instead then of being an occupation fitted for everyone, 
beekeeping is well fitted only to the minority. The array 
of human excellences here enumerated are not all necessarily 
present in perfection, but the nearer the approach of these 
qualities to that happy state, the more satisfactory will 
beekeeping be found as a vocation or avocation. It is to 
be hoped that these formidable requirements will not deter 
the potential bee-crank from making a beginning. 

Beekeeping for women. 

A question much discussed in books and journals on bees 
is that of beekeeping for women. Many women can and do 
handle bees (Fig. 14) 
with marked success. 
In those parts of the 
business which require 
delicacy of touch and 
minute attention, such 
as queen-rearing, 
women often surpass 
men in proficiency. As 
amateur beekeepers 
they are at home. The 
question which usually 
presents itself, however, 
is whether beekeeping 
is suitable for women 
as a means of earning 
a livelihood and re- 
peatedly has the writer 
been asked for advice 
on this subject. Professional beekeeping on a scale 
sufficiently large to supply an adequate income requires 
long hours of work in the hot sun, heavy lifting and 
unremitting physical endurance. On a small scale these 




Fig. 14. — A woman beekeeper. 



16 Beekeeping 

obstacles may be overcome, but in a commercial apiary the 
work must be done promptly, for delay means loss. While 
some women have found pleasure and profit in commercial 
beekeeping, it emphatically cannot be recommended for 
the majority of women, and this should be made clear to 
avoid disappointment for those who may be attracted to it. 
Of course, this applies only to those women who have no 
man in the company to do the heavy work. Many a pro- 
fessional beekeeper has received assistance of incalculable 
value from the women of the family. It should be made 
clear that the obstacles to the commercial success of women 
beekeepers are physical ones only. 

Advantages in extensive beekeeping. 

Several references have been made to the desirability of 
encouraging professional beekeeping, and this should be ex- 
plained to avoid misunderstanding. Everyone who desires 
to keep bees, of course, has that privilege, so long as by so 
doing he does not interfere with the rights of others. By 
common consent, a man's bees are not considered as tres- 
passing when they go outside his land for forage and conse- 
quently a beekeeper cannot legally or morally claim the 
exclusive right to keep bees in a locality. The beginner, 
therefore, is not considered as overstepping his rights in 
getting bees. Taking a broader view of the subject, how- 
ever, the professional beekeeper by his knowledge of the 
subject is able to produce larger crops, thereby utilizing the 
available nectar more economically. By this same knowl- 
edge and his better equipment, he is able to produce a better 
quality of honey. It is therefore evident that from the 
standpoint of conserving a resource to the best advantage 
there is reason to encourage the extensive beekeeper. 

In case a brood disease breaks out in a community, then 
there is every reason for taking sides with the professional 
beekeeper. The man with a few colonies is not financially 
interested to an extent which will compel him to care for 
the disease and in disease control it is usually necessary 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 17 

that there be some incentive to compel action, the financial 
incentive being most efficient. The small beekeeper usually 
becomes a menace to the industry in such an outbreak and 
not until most of these men lose all they have is much progress 
made against disease. 

The most economical development of the larger honey 
markets for the beekeepers of any region can come only 
through co-operation in buying necessary supplies and in 
selling their products. So long as there are so many thou- 
sands of beekeepers with small financial interest in the 
industry, such co-operation is rendered virtually impossible 
and the industry is thereby retarded. In some of the 
western states, beekeeping is carried on chiefly by extensive 
beekeepers and they have found co-operation practical and 
profitable, while the beekeepers of the east still fight their 
battles individually, co-operation being made practically 
impossible because of the thousands of beekeepers who 
could not be reached by such a co-operative movement. 

Similarly, it is difficult to bring about concerted effort 
in having desirable laws passed for the protection of the 
industry or in instituting any agency for the advancement 
of the industry unless there are a number of men whose 
financial interest is sufficient to induce them to spend time 
and money in working for the things they need as beekeepers. 
Beekeepers are very human people, and "money talks" in 
this business as well as in other lines of human endeavor. 
There is therefore adequate reason in the view that the 
development of beekeeping to its true place in American 
agriculture depends on the making of a large number of 
professional beekeepers and this in turn implies the elimina- 
tion of the beekeeper with a few colonies, little interest and 
still less of willingness to work for the industry. 

While the number of professional beekeepers is increasing 
in a way to give satisfaction to those interested in the best 
development of the industry, a word of caution may not be 
amiss. Some beekeepers feel that as professionals they 
must engage in no other business, whereas for certain months 



18 



Beekeeping 



they are not occupied for more than a small fraction of the 
time. Without entering into a moral discussion on the 
virtues of industry or the various things that Satan is said 
to find for idle hands to do, it is obvious that the professional 
beekeeper may use other occupations to add to his income 
just as the amateur beekeeper uses his bees. As the bee- 
keeper becomes more proficient he eliminates all unneces- 
sary manipulation so that the care of a goodly number of 
colonies may take a relatively short time. When the crop 
is off and sold he has little to engage his attention until the 
next season, especially if his bees are wintered out of doors. 

Where bees may be kept. 

It has been the pleasure of the writer to visit apiaries on 
the roofs of city buildings (Fig. 15) and in the almost desert 

valleys of Cali- 
fornia (Fig. 166), 
in city back- 
yards (Fig. 16) 
and in the moun- 
tain wilds, in 
small towns, on 
farms, in Canada 
and in the tropics 
(Fig. 17). In di- 
versity of loca- 
tion these api- 
aries are as varied 
as their owners. 
While recruits to 
the ranks of beekeepers may be found in all ages and 
conditions of men, so bees may be kept in places which 
would at first appear utterly unproductive, as well as in 
places which are obviously abundant in their nectar supply. 
The uninformed observer may fail utterly in his estimate 
of the value of a location from the standpoint of the bee. 
Most of the valuable nectar-secreting plants do not have 




Fig. 15. — Roof apiary in lower New York City. 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 



19 



large highly col- 
ored flowers, and 
the cultivated 
varieties of the 
flower garden are 
of insignificant 
value. Bees fly 
for two or three 
miles for forage 
and may go even 
farther in emer- 
gency. In choos- 
ing a location, 
it is therefore 
necessary that 




Fig 



Apiary on shed roof, to economize space. 



in the range of flight there be an adequate supply of nectar- 
producing plants. The ideal location is obviously one in 

which the nectar 
supply is near 
so that it may 
be obt ained 
without the loss 
of energy inci- 
dent to long 
flights. 

Results to be ex- 
pected. 

The stories 
sometimes told 
of the crops that 
have been obtained from single colonies or of the rapidity with 
which the number of colonies may be increased are apt to mis- 
lead the beginner. While several hundred pounds of honey 
may at times be obtained from a single colony in a season, 
this is by no means usual. In apiaries managed for comb- 
honey production, it is perhaps fair to estimate the average 




Fig. 17. — Tropical apiary, San Sabastian, Porto 
Rico. 



20 Beekeeping 

annual crop at 25 to 30 sections. For extracted-honey, 
larger averages may be expected, perhaps of 40 to 60 pounds. 
The financial returns depend entirely on the market and the 
method of selling the honey. If sold by the beekeeper 
direct to the consumer, a pound of extracted-honey brings 
from 10 to 20 cents, while a section of comb-honey sells at 
15 to 25 cents. If sold to dealers, the return is less but 
there is less liability of financial loss and less time consumed 
in selling. Naturally these estimates must be dependent 
on the quality of the product and on the neatness of the 
final package. In addition to the labor there will be other 
expenses for supplies such as comb-foundation, sections and 
occasional new hives and fixtures, not counting the apparatus 
used in increasing the apiary. These may cost from 50 
cents to $1.00 for each colony in a season. Estimates such 
as these are really of little value since the returns differ so 
greatly according to the kind of honey obtained and the 
facilities for marketing. For example, the white clover 
honey of the North brings a higher wholesale price than 
the amber honeys which come from most regions of the 
South but, on the other hand, the southern beekeeper en- 
joys a longer nectar-secreting season and usually obtains 
larger crops from each colony. 

Another factor which must not be overlooked is the bee- 
keeper. Anyone may reap a heavy harvest in the season 
when nectar is abundant but in the lean years, which come 
more often than desired, only the good beekeeper makes the 
most of the nectar at hand. And then come years of prac- 
tically total dearth of nectar, when feeding is necessary to 
keep the colonies alive. 

Taking all these factors into consideration, it may be 
justly concluded that a successful beekeeper is usually well 
repaid for the time he spends in his work, if he considers 
the return in the sense of wage. He may also consider that 
he has received the interest on his original relatively small 
investment. He usually averages little more than this, 
however, so that beekeeping is in no sense a " get-rich- 



Beekeeping as an Occupation 21 

quick" business. Its advantage as a recreation over most 
other occupations of a similar character is that it is a means 
of occupying time not otherwise engaged to a financial 
profit and the returns therefore often add that part to the 
income which brings comforts and pleasures. 

Beekeeping yields a quick return on the investment, for 
frequently in a good year a colony will pay for itself. In 
fact there are few branches of agriculture which on so small 
an investment will yield as great a return. It may at least 
be said for the person who decides to try out beekeeping 
that he does not stand to lose much. This chance calls 
to mind a conversation with a western friend. In recount- 
ing the present advantages and past glory of his beautiful 
city, he recalled the former gambling days when everything 
was "open." After a vivid description of those halcyon 
days and of some of the men of that time, he said, "I knew 
some of those men well. They were personal friends of 
mine and they saw nothing wrong in gambling. And I 
can appreciate their point of view — for I'm a beekeeper 
myself." 

In discussing the financial results, it is far from wise to 
overlook the other benefits. Beekeeping, to an enthusiast, 
means out of doors and intimacy with these interesting 
insects which have been studied for centuries and still re- 
main an unsolved riddle in many of their activities. It 
may mean health to the person confined to an office. It 
means to a congenial spirit association with bee-enthusiasts, 
than whom no more optimistic and warm-hearted people 
exist. If these things make an appeal, then may apiculture 
be classed as yielding the greatest profits that can be con- 
ceived. 

If now we attempt to decide for the questioning prospec- 
tive beekeeper whether he should take up bees, from the 
previous discussion the whole question is solved : if he 
will like beekeeping, he should take it up ; if not, he would 
better never have considered it. And this is about as re- 
liable and lucid a prophecy as is usually possible. 



CHAPTER II 

APPARATUS 

Before discussing the phenomena observed in the activi- 
ties of bees, on which the practical manipulations rest, it is 
desirable that some description be given of the hives and 
equipment used in beekeeping, since frequent references 
are made to these things in the chapters dealing with be- 
havior as well as in those concerning the practical work of 
the apiary. Since this subject is to be introduced early, 
it seems best to complete the discussion here, except for 
certain pieces of apparatus used in special manipulations. 



Relative importance of equipment and 

It is important that the relation of the equipment of the 
apiary to the needs of the bees be understood. A hive is 
not only a home for the bees but it is, especially, a tool for 
the beekeeper and, being only a tool, it is of far less importance 
in apiary management than the skill and experience of the 
beekeeper. 

By many beekeepers, especially among beginners, the 
apparatus of beekeeping is given undue importance and 
the interest aroused by the work of putting together the 
carefully manufactured supplies is really quite excusable. 
In the American literature on beekeeping the description 
of apparatus plays too prominent a part. Tools alone do 
not make the mechanic. It is therefore proposed here to 
give only a brief description of the general equipment of 
beekeeping, leaving for the chapters on special phases of 
beekeeping, the description of the apparatus used in these 
manipulations. For greater detail, the reader is referred 

22 



Apparatus 23 

to catalogues of supplies which manufacturers are quite 
willing to furnish. 

It would be interesting to trace the evolution of the various 
implements used in beekeeping, but this is beyond the scope 
of this book. For certain appliances, discussed in later 
chapters, such a method of treatment has seemed desirable 
and, in fact, to discuss all of the present apparatus in that 
manner would make the reasons for their construction 
clearer. There should some day be prepared a book on 
the evolution of hives and the beekeeper's equipment, if 
for no other purpose than to show the ardent inventor, 
who is usually a beginner, the steps that have already been 
taken and passed by and to prevent the repeated re-dis- 
covery of abandoned apparatus. In recent times, the 
industry is relatively free from the exploitation of worth- 
less apparatus but, at about the time of the invention of 
the Langstroth hive, the beekeeping industry was well- 
nigh buried in bizarre hives. The industry has not ceased 
to advance, but beekeepers have outgrown the belief that 
success depends on tools. The recognized essentials of 
beekeeping are knowledge of the bees, skill in manipula- 
tion and simplicity in apparatus. 

The supplies of the beekeeper have few prerequisites. 
They must be simple in construction, strongly built and, 
above all, interchangeable throughout. The manufacturers 
of beekeeping supplies in the United States have done much 
to simplify the equipment. The best materials are usually 
employed. 

Apiary house. 

In the main or home apiary, it is desirable to have a work- 
shop, usually known by beekeepers as the "honey-house," 
where supplies may be prepared and the crop cared for and 
perhaps stored for a time. This house should be below the 
bees if the ground slopes (p. 292). It is perhaps needless 
to give plans for an apiary house since the experienced bee- 
keeper will easily construct one that fits his individual needs 



24 



Beekeeping 



and the beginner will use what he has at hand. One sug- 
gestion is perhaps not amiss, if one may judge from the 
honey-houses usually seen. The house should be large 

enough to permit the 
storage of the surplus 
fixtures out of season 
and of the crop until 
it is shipped. Beekeep- 
ers frequently fail to 
provide adequate space 
for these uses. 

Windows and doors 1 
should be thoroughly 
screened to prevent the 
entrance of bees. The 
door should swing freely 
both ways (Fig. 18) so 
that the beekeeper may 
pass through with his 
arms full. The window 
screens are best made by tacking wire-cloth to the outside 
of the window casings, allowing it to extend about six 
inches above the opening. The upper border should be 
held out one-quarter of an inch 
by narrow wooden strips to pro- 
vide abundant exits for bees 
which accidentally get into the 
house. Bees rarely enter such 
openings and those which fly to 
the screens from the inside im- 
mediately crawl upward and go out, promptly clearing 
the room of bees. Bee-escapes (Fig. 19) may be used 
at the corners of ordinary framed window screens but 




Fig. 18. — Honey-house door. The 
wooden door rolls clear of the opening 
and the screen door swings both ways. 




Fig. 19. — Porter bee-escape. 



1 A. C. Miller has recently called attention to the desirability of a solid 
door to the apiary house, so that bees will not be attracted to this opening 
by the odor of honey. The suggestion is good and the desirability of 
having such a door swing both ways still exists. 



Apparatus 25 

these are less effective. The best arrangement of windows 
is to have the sash slide horizontally on runners so that the 
openings may be entirely free from glass. By this arrange- 
ment, bees are not imprisoned on single window panes and 
in hot weather the beekeeper appreciates all the breeze 
that may be allowed to enter the house. 

Benches, cupboards and racks for small supplies and 
tools can be arranged to suit individual needs, but these 
too should be large and roomy. It is a good plan to provide 
racks for surplus combs, the frames being hung in strips of 
wood properly spaced. 

The kind of honey produced determines the other features 
of the house. For comb-honey production, a well-sup- 
ported second story is recommended for the storage of 
honey. In extracting, it is desirable that the extractor, 
uncapping boxes and tanks be so arranged that it is not 
necessary to lift heavy supers and cans and so that at no 
time the honey must be lifted by hand. Honey is best 
stored in a warm place and a second story or attic is ideal 
also for extracted-honey. By the use of a honey-pump, 
the honey can be raised to a high level and it can then be 
moved by gravity in future bottling or packing. While 
general advice on the construction and arrangement of 
honey-houses is difficult to give, it will profit the beekeeper 
carefully to study his needs in drawing his plans, so that 
labor will be reduced. 

For the out-apiary, a smaller house will serve and many 
beekeepers do not have any house in such yards. The 
portable extracting outfit is one solution, and for comb- 
honey production it is as easy to haul home in the supers 
as in shipping cases. For extracted-honey production, a 
small extracting house is usually preferable. 

If bees are wintered in a cellar (p. 353), this may be built 
under the apiary house. It is desirable to provide a cook 
stove, which is a comfort in chilly weather and is serviceable 
in wax-extraction. Running water in the honey-house will 
be found a great convenience. 



26 



Beekeeping 



Hive stands. 



of 



3 




The arrangement of the hives will determine the character 
the stand. A wooden frame, bricks, tile (Fig. 20), con- 
crete blocks or flat stones are equally 
good to raise the bottom board of the 
hive above the ground so that it will 
not rot. It is sufficient to raise it only 
a few inches to allow air to circulate 
freely under the bottom. In a perma- 
nent apiary, it is convenient to arrange 
the hive stands in the desired order 
and to number them by the system 
used in numbering the colonies for pur- 
poses of record. 

Hives and hive parts. 

The hive which opens at the top and 
Fig. 20. — Ten-frame } n wn ich the combs are built in freely 

Langstroth hive r 1 ' j? . ,, n 

with queen-ex- movable irames is the one generally 
cluder, comb-honey used in America. It was invented by 
super and telescope Rev L L Langstroth, the Father of 
American beekeeping, in 1851. From 
this date, the development of modern beekeeping begins. 
The original Langstroth hive has been somewhat modified as 
the result of the experience of later years, but as now used 
(Fig. 20) it consists of a plain wooden box holding frames 
hung from a rabbet at the top (Fig. 21) and which do not 
touch the sides, top or bottom. The box is usually dove- 
tailed and is commonly made of white pine dressed to J inch. 
The greatest advance of the Langstroth hive is not so 
much in the movable frames as in the free space (Fig. 21) 
all about them. The size of this space is of the greatest 
importance, it being such that bees pass through it freely 
but do not build wax nor deposit propolis in it. The manu- 
facturers of beekeepers' supplies make this space a quarter 
of an inch. 




Apparatus 27 

The plain box rests on a bottom board, so made that 
there is an entrance space (Fig. 20), and over the hive is a 
cover which can be entirely removed to permit the removal 
of frames. There are various types of bottoms and covers, 
with no marked advantages in one over the others. The 
telescope cover over a thin inner cover is a good type (Fig. 20). 

The size of frame standard in America is that of the Lang- 
stroth (or L) hive, 9| high by 17f inches long. Frames of 
other sizes, but having the same method of hanging, have 
been devised and a larger size has much to commend it, but 
the desirability of uniformity outweighs the advantages of 
the odd sizes. 

The number of frames in the hive is 
determined by the character of the local- 
ity and the kind of honey produced. 
Many comb-honey producers in the white 
clover region prefer the eight-frame hive Fig. 21. — Diagram 
while the majority of extraeted-honey *££ — 
producers use the ten-frame size. Some bet in Langstroth 
prefer a twelve-frame hive. The sales of hive - 
supply dealers indicate a growing prefer- 
ence for the ten-frame size among all classes of beekeep- 
ers. In deciding which size of hive is preferable, the 
usual method is to determine the amount of brood that 
can be reared by a strong colony and to calculate the requi- 
site number of combs from their area. This is not an 
entirely reliable criterion for the following reasons : (1) the 
outside combs are frequently unavailable for brood-rearing, 
because of inaccurate spacing, (2) the top rows of cells in 
combs built on comb-foundation usually sag, reducing the 
area available for brood by a depth of one to two inches, 
(3) there is frequently considerable drone comb or irregular 
comb. The comb area needed for brood depends on the 
character and time of the honey-flow and on the system 
followed. For example, if the main honey-flow comes 
early in the season (e.g. white clover in the North), it is 
desirable to build up the colony with great rapidity. This 



28 Beekeeping 

may be done by stimulating breeding, and since more space 
is then needed it can be supplied by giving two hive-bodies 
for the brood. Later, when brood is less to be desired, the 
breeding space may be reduced. 

Another type of frame is sometimes used and should 
perhaps be mentioned, although its use is decreasing. 
These frames have end-bars wide enough so that they 
touch each other and the bees cannot pass around the ends 
of frames. The chief advantage stated is greater warmth 
in winter. Some frames of this type are suspended from 
the top, others from the middle of the end-bar and some 
are supported from below. 

Frames of any description must be spaced so as to give 
room between the combs to allow brood to be reared in the 
cells and also to provide space enough for 
the bees between the combs. The spacing 
usually adopted is If inches from center 
to center but some beekeepers prefer 1J 
Fig. 22. — Spacing inches. 1 The closed-end frames when 
of Hoffman frames, brought together are properly spaced. 
While the larger number of beekeepers do 
not use the closed-end type, various devices are in use for 
the spacing of open-end frames. The frame most commonly 
used has the end-bars wide enough for a short distance so 
that they touch at the top (Hoffman frames, Fig. 22). The 
metal-spaced frame is possibly an improvement. Some 
honey-producers object to spacing devices because they 
interfere in uncapping, and this objection is largely over- 
come by the use of staples in the side of the end-bar. 

To obtain regular cells in the comb, comb-foundation, a 
thin sheet of pure beeswax embossed to correspond with 
the bases of cells, is placed in the frames. On this as a guide, 
the bees build the side walls of the cells, utilizing to some 
extent the extra wax in the foundation. Foundation is 
made in various thicknesses, the thinnest being used for 
comb-honey, and in both worker and drone cell size. 

1 The English frames are l 2 9 o inches from center to center. 




Apparatus 



29 



Fig. 23. — Spur wire-imbedder. 



To strengthen the combs, it is customary to wire the 
frames with fine (No. 30 gauge, tinned) wire. The wires 
are generally stretched horizontally, and most frames as 
they come from the manufacturer are pierced for wiring. 
After the wires are stretched tight, the foundation is fas- 
tened to the top of the frame 
and the wire is imbedded in the 
foundation, usually by pressure. 
The spur imbedder (Fig. 23) is 
generally used but is not espe- 
cially good. Heat generated by a weak electric current is 
sometimes used, but perhaps the best method is to run 
along the wire a small warm soldering iron with a notch 
in the point. 

Whatever style of hive is adopted, the parts must be 
accurately cut so that the bee-spaces are of the right size 
and so that the apiary equipment may be interchangeable 
throughout. Hives or frames of different sizes or of im- 
proper dimensions are perhaps the worst inconveniences 
that can be found in an apiary. The materials used should 

be the best, for the equipment is 
often used for many years. As a 
rule, it is better to buy hives and 
frames and, in fact, practically all 
the necessary supplies from the 
regular manufacturers of such ar- 
ticles. This advice is not given 
as an advertisement for the manu- 
facturer but is based on the rec- 
ollection of ill-spaced, inaccurately 
cut, home-made outfits which have 
been encountered in traveling 
among beekeepers. Obviously, an expert wood- worker can 
do as well as the regular manufacturer, but even then the cost 
of home-made supplies usually exceeds the price charged 
by the dealers, when one considers the time consumed. 
The outside of hives should be painted to protect them 




Fig. 24. — Smoker. 



30 



Beekeeping 



from the weather. It is most important that the joint or 
dovetail be painted as decay starts there in unpainted hives. 
White paint (white lead and raw Unseed oil) is to be pre- 
ferred as it makes a cooler hive than dark colors. For the 
sake of the appearance of the apiary, all hives should be of 
the same color. This is also important if one wishes to 
interchange hives in the apiary. 

The hive, as it has been discussed so far, is essentially 
the home of the bees and is occupied by them throughout 
the year. This portion is usually known as the brood- 
chamber. For surplus honey, on which the beekeeper de- 
pends for his profit, additional parts are needed and these 
are discussed in connection with the production of the 
various kinds of honey. 

Equipment for handling bees. 

A few special tools are necessary in handling bees. A 
good smoker (Fig. 24), consisting of a tin or copper receptacle 

in which to burn rotten wood or 
other materials, with a bellows at- 
tached to force a draft, is in- 
dispensable. The medium-sized 
smokers are best for the beginner 
and the professional beekeeper may 
lacS ! ] learn by experience what size is 

best suited to his needs. The 
German beekeeper often uses a 
specially constructed pipe (Fig. 
25), which is naturally a dual-pur- 
pose tool. 

A veil of black material, prefer- 
ably of cotton netting with a silk 
tulle front (Fig. 26), is needed to 
protect the face from stings. Even 
a seasoned beekeeper, who some- 
times likes to brag that he never uses a veil, may find it 
convenient to have a veil thrown back on his hat, which can 








Fig. 25. — German beekeep 
er's pipe. 



Apparatus 



31 




Fig 



Cotton netting veil with silk 
tulle front. 



be brought down when 

the bees become annoy- 
ing. Black wire-cloth 

veils are often used and, 

while they are a better 

protection than the cloth 

veils, they are less con- 
venient as they cannot 

so easily be thrown back. 
A steel tool of some 

kind is needed to pry up 

covers and to loosen and 

separate frames. A screw- 
driver will answer but 

some specially devised 

tools (Fig. 27) may be 

found preferable. 

Gloves of cloth or leather are sometimes used to protect 

the hands. The handling of frames is less impeded if the 

finger ends are cut out. Gloves 
are hot, usually sticky or stiff,, 
and are as a rule abandoned 
after the early stages of bee- 
keeping are passed. 

A brush to sweep bees from 
the combs is a convenience, es- 
pecially in removing bees while 
taking frames from the hives 

at extracting time. The German brush with white bristles 

(Fig. 28) is perhaps the best of those manufactured, but a 

turkey feather, a long 

whisk broom or a bunch 

of weeds pulled as needed 

are as good. 

A tool box or portable 

seat (Fig. 29) and a wheelbarrow or cart for carrying supplies 

and honey are among the other conveniences used in handling 




Fig. 27. — Hive tools. 




Fig. 28. — German bee brush. 



32 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 29. — Tool-box seat. 



bees. A hive 
cover on edge 
makes a good 
temporary seat 
and has the ad- 
vantage of being 
where it is 
needed, and when 
needed is not 
otherwise oc- 
cupied. 



Other equipment. 

There are some additional appliances which may be use- 
ful in any apiary and which may be mentioned briefly. 
For making changes in supplies and in devising parts for 
special uses, the apiary equipment should include some 
carpenter's tools, among which may be mentioned hammers, 
saws (including a keyhole saw), 
brace and bits, square, planes 
and a good supply of nails of as- 
sorted sizes. Cement-coated nails 
are the best for most purposes 





Fig. 30. — Alley queen and drone trap. Fig. 31. — Bee-escape board. 

in the apiary. Queen and drone traps, usually known as 
Alley traps (Fig. 30), are useful in catching undesirable 
drones or in preventing the escape of a queen at swarming 
time (p. 273). Bee-escapes (Figs. 19 and 31) are used in 
removing bees from supers of honey, especially comb- 



Apparatus 



33 




Fig. 32. — Comb-foundation cutter. 



honey, before it is taken from the hive. An observatory 
hive with glass sides will be found instructive and enter- 
taining to the beginner 
and even to the more 
experienced beekeeper, 
if placed where the bees 
may be watched fre- 
quently. A comb-foun- 
dation cutter (Fig. 32) 
is convenient and better than an ordinary knife. If the 
beekeeper desires to make his own comb-foundation, there 

are various machines that 
may be obtained for that 
purpose. It is usually 
cheaper to buy founda- 
tion. In case it is neces- 
sary to feed colonies in 
order to stimulate brood- 
rearing or to provide 
stores for winter or dur- 




Fig. 33. — Van Deusen hive clamp. 



ing a period when no nectar is available, various types of 
feeders may be used. The construction of these is in- 
dicated in the illustrations (Figs. 105, 106, 107 and 108), 
given in connection with the discussion of feeding (p. 240). 
Clamps for holding the parts of the hive together (Fig. 33) 
are convenient in moving, but the wide (1J inch) staples 
sold by dealers in beekeeping supplies are as good. 



CHAPTER III 
THE COLONY AND ITS ORGANIZATION 

In the proper management of bees, all manipulations must 
be based on their normal activities. Bees are creatures of 
instinct and are limited in their ability to adapt themselves 
to changes in their environment. While in certain activities 
they show evidences of memory, learning, association and 
adaptive responses, in general they may be considered as 
responding to their environment in a " machine-like " man- 
ner. Because of the nature of most of their activities, it 
becomes necessary to know their normal behavior even more 
than would be the case were they more adaptive. In giving 
directions for handling bees, the systems of manipulations 
and apparatus are usually emphasized, but in the present 
book the normal activities will be made more prominent so 
that the reader may better understand the reasons for the 
usual rules and systems. Again, most of the American 
literature applies especially to the white clover region and 
the rules fail to apply elsewhere, so that there seems to be 
additional justification for a discussion of the more funda- 
mental factors in beekeeping. 

It frequently happens that a supposedly new plan or 
system is published which is old, except that it is a new 
adaptation of well-known principles to slightly changed 
conditions. The success or failure of these plans when tried 
by others is often attributed to peculiarities of the various 
localities where they are tested. The word " locality" is 
called upon to cover a multitude of defects in our knowledge 
of bee activities. Bees respond to stimuli in but one way 
and wherever a given stimulus is applied, the result is the 

34 



The Colony and its Organization 35 

same. If one's knowledge of the circumstances surround- 
ing his bees is not adequate there seems to be comfort in 
attributing to " locality" one's failure in the application of 
rules. 

Point of view. 

It may be worth while to extend these introductory re- 
marks to explain the point of view held in the present dis- 
cussion of bee activities. There are several distinct angles 
from which one may view the actions of a colony of bees and, 
since they lead to unreconcilable conclusions, they cannot 
all be correct. First to be mentioned among those who 
write concerning bees is the so-called student of nature who 
seemingly tries to find in bees a type of intelligence even 
higher than that possessed by man and who attributes to 
these insects thoughts and passions to which only the poetic 
may hope to attain. The complex colony life of bees offers 
to such a type of mind unlimited opportunity for speculation, 
which leads nowhere and is in fact a detriment to legitimate 
investigation. Allied to the just mentioned enthusiasts 
over nature are the amateur philosophers who hold up the 
bee as a brilliant example of industry. To all such specu- 
lative fancy, we may with profit turn our backs. 

In studying the behavior of any lower animal, there is but 
one source to which one should go for information. This is 
found in the actions of the animal in response to stimuli of 
its environment. If the bee makes a visible movement in re- 
sponse to a stimulus arising in its environment, 1 that visible 
movement and nothing else is of value in forming a conclu- 
sion. If there is a movement or other response inside the 
animal or otherwise invisible, or if the bee perceives the 
stimulus but does not move in response, then the observer 
has a negative result. It is frequent in bee literature to find 

1 The environmental factor may be inside or outside the hive, or even 
inside or outside the individual bee. For example, pathogenic micro- 
organisms or irritating foods are inside but not part of the animal and are 
therefore environmental factors. 



36 Beekeeping 

the words "think," "know," "suppose" and the like applied 
to bees. As a figure of speech such a form of expression may 
perhaps be admissible, but if used in its absolute sense then 
it is not warranted. It would result in a marked diminution 
of the literature on bees, and a great improvement therein, 
if such material could be wiped out of existence. 

Danger from poor work. 

There is but one source of erroneous theory more danger- 
ous than those mentioned and that is the observer who makes 
false observations and unwarranted deductions. Here too 
the bee has not escaped. Because of the wide interest in 
bees there has been a demand for scientific information 
concerning them and this has induced several untrained or 
poorly trained men to undertake observations on the struc- 
ture or behavior of bees, for which they were not equipped. 
Such work, being frequently presented in a more popular 
and attractive form than genuine scientific work, has had 
much influence among beekeepers so that, in attempting to 
present the results of thorough work, it is first often neces- 
sary to show the inaccuracies of work done by unqualified 
writers. 

Advantage of experience in behavior investigations. 

It must not be supposed that our present knowledge of 
the behavior of the bee is complete. It is, in fact, woefully 
meager. It is probably true, however, that a well-informed 
beekeeper has a wider and more accurate knowledge con- 
cerning bees than have many students of animal behavior 
concerning the species with which they work. The intimate 
acquaintance of the beekeeper with these insects results in a 
knowledge of their activities which, while faulty at times 
due to a lack of training in observation, is as a whole quite 
accurate. While this information is often fragmentary and 
is usually acquired without any special realization of the 
general principles of behavior, at the same time the data 
acquired through years of contact with the bees are perhaps 



The Colony and its Organization 37 

as reliable as those obtained by the experimenter on other 
species in the course of a relatively brief investigation. A 
new worker in bee behavior should hesitate before denying 
the belief of the beekeeper until he is sure of his ground. 

Zoological position of the honeybee. 

The honeybee belongs to the order of insects known as 
Hymenoptera, to which belong also many parasites of other 
insects, the solitary and social wasps, ants and the entire 
group of bees, from the solitary species through various 
stages in the development of the bee colony to the honeybee. 
The honeybee is the highest of these colonial forms, highest 
because most specialized in its behavior and least able to 
exist alone. Yet, while it is highly specialized in its behavior, 
it is not so strikingly modified in its structure as are some of 
the other Hymenoptera, such as the Ichneumonidse. Among 
the Hymenoptera there are three groups of social insects, 
wasps, ants and bees, and the type of colony found in these 
three groups is fundamentally the same. The only other 
true colonial insects are the termites, "white ants," of a 
distinct order and with a quite different type of colony. 

The genus Apis to which the honeybee belongs also in- 
cludes the species indica, florea, dorsata and zonata, all of 
which are natives of the far East and none of which is as 
useful to man as the species mellifica. 1 These are briefly 
discussed in Chapter IX. 

1 One of the cases of confusion originating from the application of the 
law of priority in scientific nomenclature is the attempted change of the 
name of the honeybee from mellifica, by which it has been known for so 
many years, to mellifera. In the 10th edition of Linnaeus' "Systema 
Naturae" (1758), the boundary of the prehistoric for the taxonomist, the 
name mellifera was^used, while Linnaeus himself used mellifica in later 
years. The name mellifica is found in a vast literature, it is the scientific 
name by which the bee is known to most zoologists and beekeepers, the 
name which Linnaeus preferred and, last but not least, it is a correctly 
descriptive name. It should be recognized in taxonomy, as well as in 
civic legislation, that a law to be effective must be backed by public senti- 
ment. It might therefore with propriety be suggested to the taxonomic 
purists that they cultivate public sentiment by allowing the zoologist, 
dealing in things not names of things, to live in peace among his old friends. 



38 • Beekeeping 

Bees not domestic animals. 

Bees have been kept by man from an early stage in the 
development of human civilization, yet it cannot be said 
that they are domesticated. In all of their activities, bees 
under the care of man do not differ from bees in a wild state. 
The bee has been modified by breeding in various ways 
but, in so far as the natural instincts are concerned, it is 
doubtful whether any appreciable change has been brought 
about and in the greater number of phases of bee life no 
change has even been attempted. An escaping swarm takes 
up its abode in a hollow tree and the bees are often then 
spoken of as "wild, " but this adjective is just as applicable 
to the bees in the apiary. Certain animal trainers become 
proficient in handling savage animals through their knowl- 
edge of the ways of these beasts. Similarly the beekeeper, 
by studying the behavior of his bees, comes to know their 
habits and is governed by this knowledge. This comparison 
of bees and wild animals must be construed not as intended 
to inspire fear in the uninitiated but to point out that the 
beekeeper actually is dealing with animals unmodified in 
their instincts by their long association with man. By the 
proper use of smoke and especially by the way the colony is 
handled, the beekeeper can seemingly do with his bees as he 
pleases. The fact is, however, that he cannot overstep the 
bounds set by the instincts of these animals. It is therefore 
an incorrect conception of the ability of the beekeeper to 
state, as did Langstroth, that bees are capable of being 
tamed. In view of these facts, the necessity of a thorough 
knowledge of bee activities is most evident. 

Necessity of colonial life. 

Bees cannot live alone. Their structure and instincts fit 
them for life in a colony or community, where the various 
duties are divided among the individuals according to struc- 

Many zoologists refuse to take taxonomy seriously and there seems every 
reason for disregarding its laws in the present case. 



The Colony and its Organization 39 

tural fitness and age. While an individual worker bee may 
live if forcibly isolated from its mates, it cannot reproduce 
itself, fails to care for itself adequately and soon dies. Most 
insects have the ability to hibernate in winter but the honey- 
bee seems to have lost that ability. Since at low tempera- 
tures the bee becomes numb and finally dies, it must have 
the ability to make, its own environment, so far as tempera- 
ture is concerned. This makes a colony necessary in winter 
so that the bees may mutually and collectively warm each 
other. Efficiency, if not necessity, demands that the work 
of the colony be divided and such a division of labor tends to 
develop into a condition demanding the maintenance of the 
colony. The honeybee is further modified for the defense of 
the colony rather than of the individual. The barbed sting 
is used but once and is more effective because it is left behind 
while the former owner dies. Such a weapon of defense is of 
no service to the individual. 

Size of the colony. 

This varies according to the season, the smallest number 
being usually found at the close of the winter in the North, 
when the number may be reduced to 10,000 or even much 
less. At the height of the season, the number may reach 
70,000, and while a larger number may be possible it is unu- 
sual. Swarms sometimes issue which contain 35,000 individ- 
uals. Such numbers usually surprise the uninitiated. It is 
not, however, necessary for bees to exist in such large numbers 
to constitute a colony. A mere handful of bees (perhaps 200) 
may constitute a small colony (usually called a nucleus x ) and 
if favorable conditions were to continue such a nucleus would 
become a full-sized colony. 

TYPES OF INDIVIDUALS IN A COLONY 

A normal colony at the height of the summer season of 
activity is composed of three kinds of individuals, (1) the 

1 The unusually small colonies are known among beekeepers as "baby 
nuclei." 



40 



Beekeeping 



queen (Fig. 34, b), of which there is normally only one, the 
mother of all the other bees of the colony (except just after a 




Fig. 34. 



The honeybee 



worker ; b, 
enlarged. 



queen 



drone. Slightly 



new queen has been reared), (2) thousands of workers (Fig. 
34, a) or sexually undeveloped females which normally lay 
no eggs but do all the other work and (3) many drones (Fig. 

34, c) or males, often removed 
or restricted in numbers by the 
beekeeper, whose only function 
is to mate with young queens. 
These three types of adult in- 
dividuals are easily recognizable 
even by a novice by differences 
in the size of the various parts of 
the body. In addition to the 
adult bees, there are normally 
found during the active season 
all stages of developing bees 
(Fig. 35). 




Fig. 35. — The honeybee: a, 
egg ; b, young larva ; c, old 
larva ; d, pupa. Enlarged. 



Queen. 

There is normally but one 
queen, the largest individual in 



The Colony and its Organization 41 

the colony. She has for her sole duty the laying of eggs and 
all the individuals normally develop from eggs laid by her. 
They are deposited at the bases of cells of the comb in that 
portion of the nest devoted to the rearing of brood, the brood 
nest. The eggs are fastened to the cell base by the poste- 
rior (future caudal end of the larva) end by means of a secre- 
tion of the queen. The number of eggs laid by the queen x 
varies from a few daily in early spring and late fall in the 
northern regions to about 1500-2000 a day at the height of 
the egg-laying season. Under special conditions, usually 
artificially produced by the beekeeper, she may lay as many 
as 4500 to 5000 eggs a day and maintain this rate for several 
days. The weight of the maximum number that can be laid 
in a day is equal to about twice the weight of the queen at 
any time during the period, indicating a marvelous rapidity 
in metabolism. 

The queen is not, as her name would indicate, the ruler of 
the colony. It has for ages been known that there is one 
large individual in the colony and the ancients gave the 
name "king" to this supposed ruler. When it was learned 
that the supposed monarch laid eggs it became necessary to 
change the name. It is now known that the queen is men- 

1 In 1903, the author had occasion to study the egg-laying of normal 
queens. Queens were introduced to a small colony in an observatory hive 
on an empty comb. These queens usually deposited about four or some- 
times six eggs a minute, passing quickly from one cell to another. The 
abdomen is inserted in the cell, the legs are braced firmly on the edges of 
adjacent cells and the wings are placed flat against the edges of cells to the 
rear. During egg-laying, the queen is often surrounded by a circle of 
worker bees with their heads toward her, rubbing her with their antennae. 
Frequently this rapid egg-laying is continued without interruption for 
20 to 25 minutes and at times for a longer period. There then is usually a 
resting period, often of about five minutes, during which time the queen is 
fed by the workers. Whenever the queen comes to rest, she is surrounded 
by a circle of workers and, as she walks over the comb, each bee turns to- 
ward her when she gets within half an inch. This is probably a response 
to the stimulus of odor. 

Some curious traditions have arisen about this circle around the queen, 
one of the most interesting being the claim that there are always twelve, 
the number being associated with the twelve apostles. The turning toward 
the queen is often ascribed to the affection of the workers for her, but this 
is probably as well grounded as the tradition of there being always twelve. 



42 Beekeeping 

tally less highly developed than the workers and that, to 
some degree, the workers determine the number of eggs to 
be laid and otherwise determine the queen's activities. 

The ovaries of the queen (Fig. 92) are highly developed, as 
is necessary for her specialized function, and because of this 
development the abdomen is greatly elongated. Her legs 
(Fig. 81) are not specially modified as are those of the workers 
and the ovipositor is curved and smooth and has attached to 
it a poison sac x and functions as a sting. Whether it also 
assists in egg-laying is not determined. The eyes (Fig. 69) 
are much like those of the workers, the mandibles are notched 
and proportionately large, the head is not so elongated as 
that of the worker and is somewhat smaller. The antennae 
have twelve segments, like those of the worker. 

Mating normally takes place but once when the queen is 
from five to eight days old, the time differing slightly in 
different races and being influenced also by conditions of the 
weather. There is reason to think that some queens mate 
more than once, but always before laying eggs. Mating 
never occurs in the hive but on the wing and the queen re- 
ceives a supply of spermatozoa (male sex cells), millions in 
number, which are stored in her spermatheca (Fig. 92) and 
remain functional during the life of the queen or until they 
are exhausted. Egg-laying commonly begins two days after 
mating. The queen often lives three or four years but a few 
exceptional cases are recorded of queens living seven years. 
The life of the queen seems to depend somewhat on the num- 
ber of eggs which she lays. The queen, when she fails in egg- 
laying, is superseded by a young queen reared by the workers. 



1 On one occasion the author was stung by a virgin queen. While it 
was doubtless his own fault, this is an experience that comes to but few 
beekeepers. This was in the early days of his beekeeping experience and 
that there was a poison sac at the other end of the sting was attested by a 
goodly swelling. The queen was seemingly uninjured. This occurred in 
the apiary of the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio and, by a strange coinci- 
dence, E. R. Root received a letter the same day from a western beekeeper 
who had a similar experience and who considered it rare enough to be worthy 
of publication. 



The Colony and its Organization 43 

While there is usually but one queen in the colony, it some- 
times happens that two are found, usually mother and 
daughter at the time of supersedure. Records of this kind 
are not infrequent but usually each observer thinks that his 
observation is unique, v. Buttel-Reepen 1 claims that there 
are usually two brood-nests. He records one case in which 
this was not true and several American beekeepers have 
recorded the same thing. The specialization which normally 
permits but one egg-producing female is not well understood 
nor do we know why a queen usually attempts to kill any 
rivals (except under swarming conditions). Recently, Al- 
exander 2 has advocated the use of two queens for rapid up- 
building of the colony in the spring and he brought this about 
by a special method of introduction. He records that usually 
but one remains in the fall. 

Workers. 

The larger number of bees in the colony are females whose 
sexual organs are undeveloped and which are structurally 
modified in other ways. These are justly called worker bees. 
These bees feed the growing larvae, clean, guard and venti- 
late the hive, build comb, gather nectar, pollen, water and 
propolis and, in fact, do all the work of the hive, except that 
normally they lay no eggs (p. 187). 

The ovaries are small and there is no spermatheca. The 
mandibles (Fig. 70) are not notched as in the queen, the legs 
(Fig. 81) are variously modified, the third pair being modi- 
fied for the carrying of pollen. The ventral plates of the 
last four visible segments of the abdomen are modified on 
the anterior edge to form wax glands (Fig. 53) from which 
the wax used in comb building is secreted. The sting (Fig. 
83) is straight and barbed. The antennae have 12 segments. 
The tongue is longer than in the queen or drones. The 

1 v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1900. Sind die Bienen Reflex-maschinen ? (Eng. 
trans., p. 10.) 

2 Alexander, E. W., 1907. A plurality of queens in a colony, without 
perforated zinc. Gleanings in Bee Culture, XXXV, pp. 1136-1138. 
See also p. 1496 and Vol. XXXVI, p. 1135. 



44 Beekeeping 

honey stomach (Fig. 60) is well developed. The workers never 
mate with the drones and lay eggs only under abnormal 
circumstances, which are discussed under Chapter VIII. 

Speaking in general terms, the length of life of worker bees 
is measured not so much by days or weeks as by the amount 
of work which they do. During the period when nectar is 
being gathered abundantly, they literally work themselves 
to death and the population of the colony is appreciably 
decreased unless brood is being reared heavily. During 
such a period, the average length of life of worker bees is 
barely six weeks, while in periods when less work is necessary 
the life is lengthened. Those bees which emerge in the early 
autumn are the ones which live until the following spring. 
During the active season, the majority of worker bees die 
outside the hive, failing to return with the last load. Small 
wonder that in addition to their other burdens they must 
sometimes serve as examples of industry ! 

Drones. 

The males of the bee are known by this name. The use of 
the word drone, meaning a lazy person, arose from the name 
of the male bee, and it may be re-applied to them as fitting. 
They are not a useful part of the colony organization in the 
routine, for they do none of the work of the hive nor do they 
assist in gathering. The only function of a drone is that of 
mating with a young (virgin) queen and in this act it dies. 
Drones are heavy consumers of stores and are not in favor 
among beekeepers, so that their numbers are greatly reduced 
in the modern apiary. This is done either by restricting the 
number of cells in which they may be reared or by trapping 
them after they emerge as adults. 

. The drone is a large individual, exceeding even the queen 
in girth of thorax. 1 The compound eyes (Fig. 69) are so 

1 This fact enables the beekeeper to trap out drones by means of the 
Alley traps (Fig. 30), which have openings twwo °f an mcn wide, 
through which workers can pass but which are not large enough for most 
drones and queens because of their larger thoraces. 



The Colony and its Organization 45 

large that they meet on top of the head, forcing the ocelli 
(simple eyes, O, Fig. 69) down on the front nearer the bases 
of the antennas. The legs (Fig. 81) have no pollen baskets. 
The wax glands are missing, and there is no sting (this 
being a strictly female organ, a modified ovipositor). 
There is one more segment visible in the abdomen than 
in the female and the abdomen is larger and blunt at 
the end. A row of prominent hairs is present on the dorsal 
side of the abdomen. 

In the early spring when brood-rearing begins, the first 
eggs laid by the queen ordinarily develop into workers and, 
as the colony becomes more populous and the weather mod- 
erates, drones rapidly appear. They may be fairly abun- 
dant, if the beekeeper does not reduce their number, up to 
the close of the honey-flow, but at that time the workers 
drive them from the colony. The first indication of this 
exodus is to see them in numbers on the bottom board and 
soon workers will be seen leaving the entrance carrying the 
heavy drones, with the base of a wing grasped by the man- 
dibles. They are dropped a hundred feet or more from the 
hive and usually fail to return. If they do return the pro- 
cess is repeated. 1 There is reason to believe that the drones 
are first starved and then carried out when they become 
weak. They are rarely stung to death. This slaughter of 
the drones is best seen in localities where the honey-flow 
stops abruptly. In queenless colonies, drones are not re- 
moved and cases are reported of such colonies retaining 
them until well into winter. Drones usually do not fly until 
over a week old but they are probably functionally developed 
earlier, for the spermatozoa are developed in the pupa. 

The drones are seemingly not so fundamentally members 
of a single colony as are females. They may be placed in 
any colony without being molested and appear to enter 
anywhere without challenge until the time of the slaughter. 



1 It is not so usually recognized that old workers are sometimes treated 
in the same manner. 



46 Beekeeping 

Brood. 

The developmental stages of bees (Fig. 35) are discussed 
in a later chapter (p. 93) and, for our present purpose, it is 
necessary only to present a general statement concerning 
the numbers of individuals in these developmental stages 
in the colony. In the earliest stages of brood-rearing (in 
late winter in the North), the queen lays only a few eggs a 
day and the number increases to 1500 or more a day in an 
average colony. In exceptional cases, however, this may be 
exceeded until there are in the combs at one time as many as 
40,000 developing bees in all stages, and possibly of all three 
kinds of bees. Incidentally, this gives some basis for an 
estimate of the death rate of the adult bees of the colony. 
If bees emerge from the comb at the rate of 1500 a day dur- 
ing a honey-flow, the population of the colony is not notic- 
ably increased, indicating that 1500 or more bees from that 
colony are dying daily. In the spring when the bees are 
working less in gathering nectar, the population increases 
rapidly, indicating a much lower death rate. Truly, bees 
are creatures of a day. 

NATURAL NEST 

In a wild state, the bee colony lives in a hollow tree or 
cavity in the rocks, although they thrive in the artificial 
hive provided by the beekeeper. An examination of a wild 
colony will assist in the understanding of various manipu- 
lations and hive arrangements. The combs which form 
their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers 
(p. 108). The horizontal, hexagonal cells of the two vertical 
layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends on a 
common septum (Fig. 36). In the cells of these combs are 
reared the developing workers and drones, honey and pollen 
also being stored in such cells. These combs hang from the 
top of the cavity and are frequently also attached to the 
sides. They are rarely built upward from a lower support. 

The cells built naturally are not all of the same size. The 



The Colony and its Organization 



47 



ones in which worker bees are reared (worker cells) are about 
one-fifth of an inch across and those used for rearing drones 
(drone cells) are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. 




am 



Fig. 36. — Structure of comb : a, vertical section at top of comb ; b, ver- 
tical section showing transition from worker to drone cells ; c, horizon- 
tal section at side of comb showing end-bar of frame ; d, horizontal 
section of worker brood cells; e, diagram showing transition cells. 
Slightly reduced. 



The cells used in storing honey are usually of the larger size 
while pollen is ordinarily stored in worker cells. The storage 
cells are less regular and as a rule slope upward at the outer 
end. The side walls are not all at right angles to the midrib 



48 



Beekeeping 



(the common septum) but on all the edges of the comb there 
may often be noticed a sloping of the outer ends of the cell 
walls toward the edge of the comb (Fig. 36, c). Where drone 
and worker cells join, the bees overcome the lack of conform- 
ity by building transition cells (Fig. 36, b and e, Fig. 37) of 
irregular shape. Such cells usually cannot be used for brood- 
rearing. Attention should perhaps be drawn to the differ- 
ence between vertical and horizontal sections of comb (Fig. 
36, a, b and d). An examination of a comb will show these 

illustrations to be 
correct, although 
many authors of 
books on bees 
persist in labeling 
drawings like Fig. 
36, d as vertical 
sections. In ad- 
dition to the ir- 
regular transition 
cells, the cells at 
the junction of 
the comb to its 
support are quite 
irregular. 

The combs of 
the natural nest 
are often not straight but are bent and curved in various 
ways. The several combs may be parallel or, if this is 
not the case, the irregular spaces may be filled with short 
combs. Notwithstanding the irregularity of the whole 
comb, individual cells of the comb are commonly quite 
uniform. This regularity has been greatly overestimated, 
however. Reaumur went so far as to advise that the 
width of a cell be adopted as a legal unit of measure, but 
even a cursory examination of naturally built comb will 
show how impractical this would have been. There are also 
in bee-lore traditions of the marvelous accuracy with which 




Fig. 37. 



Piece of new comb showing transition 
cells. 



The Colony and its Organization 



49 



bees form the angles of the side walls and those of the side 
walls with the base. It has been stated that the comb is 
built with such accuracy that the maximum capacity and 
strength are obtained with the minimum expenditure of wax. 
Miraldi and Koenig vied with each other in the supposed 
accuracy of their measurements of the various angles and in 
their calculations of the greatest economy of wax. While 
it would be a marvelous accomplishment if bees were able to 
build so accurately, it is per- ^ 

haps more marvelous that they 
can adapt their cells to their 
needs. It need scarcely be 
said that the formerly sup- 
posed accuracy is not actual. 1 
In addition to the horizon- 
tally placed hexagonal cells, 
there are found on the combs 
at certain times cells of a differ- 
ent type. These hang verti- 
cally from the combs and are 
used for rearing queens (Fig. 
38). They are circular rather than hexagonal, are larger 
than the other cells and the outer surface is rough and 
pitted, somewhat resembling a peanut. 




Fig. 38. 



Queen cell. 

size. 



Natural 



Contents of the cells. 

As previously stated, the cells of the comb are used for the 
rearing of brood and for the storage of honey and pollen, 
each use being in a sense more or less restricted to cells 
in definite locations. As the larvae (p. 100) reach the age 
when food is no longer taken, they are sealed over with a 
characteristic capping (Fig. 39), and when a cell is filled with 
ripened honey it too is sealed, but with a different capping 



1 Under manipulation, the size and regularity of the cells are controlled 
by the use of comb-foundation, sheets of pure beeswax on which the midrib 
is impressed (p. 28 ). Even when this is used, a sloping of the side walls 
of the cells toward the outer margin of the combs may often be observed. 



50 



Beekeeping 



(Fig. 40). The cells containing pollen are usually not en- 
tirely filled and, unless they are also used for the storage of 
honey, as is sometimes the case, the pollen is not covered. 

While the usual conception of the use of the combs includes 
only the uses just mentioned, the cells actually have an im- 
portant use as places for adult bees. In winter the bees 
normally form their cluster over cells containing no honey 
and adult bees crawl into the empty cells, filling every one 

within the space 
occupied by the 
cluster. They are 
thus able to form 
a much more com- 
pact mass, the out- 
side of the cluster 
being essentially a 
solid wall of bees. 
During the active 
season, bees often 
crawl into the 
empty cells, but 
their function dur- 
ing this time is 
not clear, except 
that by this means 
cells are prepared to receive eggs. It has been suggested 
that many of these bees are " sleeping," but how one may 
determine this has not been explained. 

Arrangement of the nest. 

There is to be observed in a natural colony a definite and 
virtually constant arrangement of the contents of the combs. 
During the active season, the brood occupies an approxi- 
mately spherical space involving several combs at the lower 
part of the center of the comb mass. This space may be 
shifted or restricted by excessive stores of honey. Around 
this, on the sides and above, are cells of pollen and beyond 




Fig. 39. — Cappings of brood ; the larger cap- 
pings are over drone pupae. Natural size. 



The Colony and its Organization 51 

these are the honey stores, chiefly to the back of the nest. 
Drone cells are most often found in the lower corners of 
combs. This typical plan may be variously modified if the 
nest is of peculiar shape. 

In natural comb-building, bees build for the immediate 
present, with no evidence of a plan for the needs of the future. 
When comb-building begins, worker cells are built so long as 
the queen continues promptly to lay eggs in the new cells. 
A queenless colony builds storage cells (drone-cell size). If 
the colony is rather weak and can care for only a little brood, 
the bees soon begin to build storage cells and this also occurs 
if the queen is a poor layer. In a nucleus, however, only 
worker cells are built. If nectar is coming in abundantly 
they construct storage cells. It may thus happen that some 
of the combs near the center of the brood nest contain a 
superabundance of cells suitable only for the rearing of drones 
or for the storage of honey, and this condition remains in 
future years, regardless of the best interests of the colony. 

Color of the combs. 

When first built, combs are light yellow or almost white 
in color, 1 but after brood is reared in the cells the comb is 
darkened by the " cocoons" left by the brood. These so- 
called cocoons consist of larval skins and excreta, with the 
possible addition of a portion of the delicate silken cocoon 
(p. 101). These deposits increase with successive rearings of 
brood until the bases of the cells are appreciably thickened 
while the outer parts of the side walls remain practically 
unmodified in size. If an old comb is soaked in water the 
layers of deposits may be readily separated. The combs 
are also darkened by deposits of propolis on the cappings of 
honey cells and the tops of combs are often strengthened by 
deposits of this substance, especially when the combs are 
attached to rough wood, as in a hollow log. 

1 The color varies with the sources of honey and pollen at the time the 
comb is being built. This fact is not yet satisfactorily explained. It is 
also known that waxes vary similarly in certain physical properties. 



52 Beekeeping 

Protection of the nest. 

Since the nest of a colony is usually built in a cavity, it is 
thereby protected, at least partially, from extremes of 
weather and from depredations. In addition to the pro- 
tection afforded by the shelter, the worker bees cover the 
inside of the cavity (if it is rough) with propolis (bee glue). 
This serves to protect the colony from external moisture, 
often strengthens the wood in a rotten tree and covers irreg- 
ularities in the surface. Certain races (p. 196) are especially 
active in reducing the size of the entrance with the same 
material (Fig. 94), sometimes adding wax to it. An exam- 
ination of a cavity in a tree which has been occupied by a 
colony for a considerable time will prove interesting in show- 
ing the ways in which bees have improved their abode. 

While swarms usually seek protection in a cavity, it some- 
times happens that they fail to do this but build their combs 
in the open. Bouvier x has described in detail the comb 
architecture of such a colony which survived the winter in 
Paris but died in March. Similar cases are reported fre- 
quently in the United States but such a colony fails to sur- 
vive cold winters. On one occasion, an open-air colony was 
discovered near Washington and was moved to the apiary of 
the Department of Agriculture, then located at College Park, 
Maryland (Fig. 41). The colony defended itself from rob- 
bers and wasps during a period when robbing was severe and 
wasps were unusually abundant, and lived until nearly mid- 
winter, when it succumbed during a blizzard. In general, 
the combs of such colonies are bent so that the wind cannot 
blow directly through the nest, and the edges of combs are 
sometimes united with comb projections or propolis. This 
ability to live in the open suggests a similarity with the giant 
bees of India and the Philippines which normally build 
unprotected combs, the latter bees however usually building 
only a single large comb. 

1 Bouvier, E. L., 1905. Sur la nidification d'une colonie d'abeilles a 
l'air libre. Bui. societe philomatique de Paris, Neuv. ser., VII, pp. 186- 
206. 



The Colony and its Organization 53 

Comparison with stingless bees. 

The arrangement and protection of the natural nest of the 
honeybee may be compared with the arrangement found in 
the stingless bees, to which they are closely related. These 
bees do not build double rows of cells in their combs but the 
brood is reared in cylindrical cells fused together in single 
layers. The pollen and honey are stored in large spherical 
cells of wax. Several years ago, the author had opportunity 
to examine the nest of a colony of these bees minutely. In 
this particular species, the spherical cells for pollen and 
nectar are about one inch in diameter. The entrance is 
contracted and projects as a funnel almost two inches out- 
ward. This funnel is evidently composed of propolis and 
wax to which pellets of earth are added. Inside the entrance 
are the storage cells for pollen surrounding the outer half of 
the group of brood cells. Back of the brood cells and par- 
tially encircling them are the cells of honey, the honey in 
this particular case being well ripened and of superb flavor. 
The contracted entrance suggests a resemblance to the work 
of certain races of honeybees (e.g. Caucasian, p. 196) in clos- 
ing the entrance in the autumn, while the general arrange- 
ment of the nest follows the usual plan for the honeybee 
closely, except that the pollen cells are between the entrance 
and the brood. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE CYCLE OF THE YEAR 

To describe the various activities observed in the bee 
colony in its response to changes in the environment, there 
is perhaps no better arrangement of the facts than to follow 
such a colony through the year, assuming that it is normal 
and unmolested by man. For convenience, the cycle is 
begun at the close of winter. It must of course be understood 
that any such arrangement is arbitrary, since the cycle varies 
in different regions with differences in climate and in the 
sources of nectar. 

In discussing the round of action, it is customary among 
American writers chiefly to discuss the phenomena observed in 
the white clover region, and they often fail to make clear that 
elsewhere the course of events may be materially modified. 
The long winter of the North is a striking feature of the year 
and greatly influences the activities of the bees. In this 
region, too, all of the seasonal influences which go to make 
up the year are intensified and the proper control of bees is 
more difficult. In the discussion which follows, the events 
typical of the North must be made rather prominent in 
order to follow the plan of arranging the facts to the yearly 
cycle, but an effort is made to include the differences which, 
"n beekeeping literature, are often attributed to the abused 
term "locality." From the strong contrasts in seasons and 
in bee activities observed near the northern limits of the 
region where bees may be kept, there is a gradual fading of 
the boundaries of the seasons and a corresponding reduction 
in the extremes of bee activity until we reach the tropics, 
where every day to the bees is as the day before, except for 

54 




Fig. 43. — Larvae in cells of the comb, almost full grown. Slightly 
enlarged. 



The Cycle of the Year 55 

the indistinctly circumscribed honey-flows and for temporary 
disturbances in weather conditions. 



BROOD-REARING 

A normal colony of bees in good condition just previous 
to the beginning of the season's activity may be assumed to 
be broodless and to consist of a mated queen and perhaps 
10,000 or more worker bees. The combs contain an adequate 
supply of honey and stored pollen. The workers fly from 
the hive whenever the days are warm enough, especially 
after a period of confinement, and with the opening of the 
earliest spring flowers they replenish their stores of honey 
and pollen. Previous to the stimulus of incoming nectar, 
however, the rearing of brood is begun. This usually com- 
mences, in colonies wintered out of doors, in the coldest 
period of the winter, in February or even in January in the 
North, and this fact indicates strongly that the beginning 
of brood-rearing is usually not due to a rise in the outside 
temperature or to the procuring of nectar or pollen, as is 
usually assumed. It certainly is not due to any instinctive 
knowledge of the coming of spring. 

The first eggs (Fig. 42) are laid in the center of the winter 
cluster, before it is loosened. They are usually deposited 
in circular areas of cells on adjacent combs and, if the queen 
can pass around the combs without leaving the cluster, such 
circles of eggs will be found opposite each other on the comb. 
As breeding continues, eggs are placed in concentric rings, 
not only on the middle comb but on contiguous combs, so 
that the form of the brood nest becomes approximately 
spherical. The development of the brood (Fig. 35) will be 
discussed in greater detail in a later chapter (p. 93) and it 
will suffice here to state that after approximately three days 
there hatches from the egg a small worm-like larva, pearly- 
white l in color. This is fed great quantities of food by the 

1 In the comb the larva appears white but, if one is removed from the 
cell and placed on white paper, a slight yellow or brown color is evident. 



56 Beekeeping 

workers so that it grows nearly to fill the cell (Fig. 43) in a 
few days. It is then capped over (Fig. 39) and undergoes 
metamorphosis into an adult, this transition stage being 
known as the pupa. If about two weeks after brood-rearing 
has begun, the central comb is removed, we find the inner 
circle of the brood sealed, surrounding this concentric circles 
of larvae, the smaller toward the outside, and in the outer- 
most circle are recently laid eggs. Similarly as other combs 
are examined, the same succession of brood is found as we 
go to the outer lateral boundaries of the sphere of brood. 
As the brood continues to develop, the innermost cells are 
first emptied by the emergence l of the young adult bees and 
the queen then returns to the center of the sphere to deposit 
eggs. The emergence of the brood increases the size of the 
colony and consequently the amount of brood that can be 
fed and protected is greater, especially since the young bees 
normally do most of the work of caring for the brood. Fur- 
thermore, as the temperature of the outside air rises, the 
cluster is expanded and more brood can be included in it. 
Bees often attempt to rear more brood than they can cover 
in the event of unusually cold weather, and if the weather 
turns cold they may contract the cluster and leave brood 
exposed to die of starvation and cold. The concentric ar- 
rangement of the brood may often be observed throughout 
the breeding season (Fig. 44) but usually after a time the 
symmetrical arrangement of early spring is less conspicuous, 
due to irregularities in the combs or to external conditions 
modifying the extent of brood-rearing from day to day. In 
general, however, the brood consists of concentric spherical 
layers of various ages. 2 The concentric arrangement of the 

The content of the intestine is often dark and this may frequently be 
seen through the transparent tissues as a narrow band on the convex 
side. 

1 Beekeepers frequently refer to the emergence of young adult bees as 
"hatching." This, however, is incorrect and the word should be applied 
only to the issuing of the young larvae from the eggs. 

2 In a hive as shallow as the Langstroth the sphere is usually flattened, 
as in Fig. 44. 



The Cycle of the Year 



57 



pollen and honey about the brood has been previously 
described (p. 50). 

The first eggs laid develop into worker bees, but as the 
season advances eggs are laid in the larger cells of the comb, 
from which drones develop. The number of drones and the 
time when they first appear depend largely on the kind of 
cells in the comb. If there are drone cells near the place 
where the cluster is formed, they are soon included within 
the limits of the brood nest, as it expands, and drones appear 
earlier than if the drone cells were at one side of the hive. 




Fig. 44. — Concentric arrangement of the brood. 



Brood-rearing during the season. 

The cycle of brood-rearing has been studied by Dufour x 
for the conditions prevailing in Fontainebleau, France, from 
1897 to 1900. This was done by measuring the extent of 
the brood nest every 21 days (worker brood requiring that 
time to develop) and by estimating accurately the number 
of eggs laid since the previous measurements. The hives 
(Layens) used contained 20 frames, 2 each 37 cm. (14.67 in.) by 

1 Dufour, Leon, 1901. Recherches sur la ponte de la reine. Ann. de la 
fed. des soc. d'apiculture (France). Lille: Le Bigot Freres (with L'Api- 
culteur, 1902). 

2 These hives are comparable to the hives sometimes used in America, 
to which the name "long idea" is given. All 20 frames are in one hive body. 



58 



Beekeeping 



31 cm. (12.3 in.). To show the course of egg-laying during 
the season, the accompanying table is copied from this paper. 
These observations were made during 1900 on a colony in 
which the queen was reared in 1899, egg-laying of this queen 
having begun about June 17, 1899. During the year a total 
of about 150,000 eggs were laid. The maximum egg-laying 
occurred during the period of the chief honey-flow, which 
that year was from June 1 to 12. The colony did not swarm. 

Table I. Egg-laying during an Entire Season — Dufour 



Date 


Period 


Average 
Laying 


Feb. 26 


Feb. 5-Feb. 26 


135 


March 20 


Feb. 27-March 20 


220 


April 12 


March 22-April 12 


309 


May 3 


April 12-May 3 


1008 


May 23 


May 2-May 23 


1454 


June 14 


May 24- June 14 


1538 


July 5 


June 14- July 5 


1081 


July 26 


July 5- July 26 


668 


Aug. 16 


July 26-Aug. 16 


348 


Sept. 6 


Aug. 16-Sept. 6 


450 


Sept. 27 


Sept. 6-Sept. 27 


83 



In brief, the results of Dufour's work are as follows : For 
that locality and under the conditions prevailing, the largest 
average observed was 1627 eggs a day (June 10-July 1, 1898). 
The maximum occurs during a heavy honey-flow or imme- 
diately after. A queen about to be superseded may lay about 
400 eggs daily, while a young queen may begin by laying 
900 eggs daily (these figures probably vary with the time of 
year). Artificial swarming is said greatly to diminish egg- 
laying. It must be remembered that variation in climatic 
conditions and in honey-flows influence egg-laying and the 
results of such work would not be the same everywhere. 
Work of this character should be carried out elsewhere. 



The Cycle of the Year 59 



THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HIVE 

In a study of the activities of a colony of bees, the question 
of temperature must be carefully considered. Bees are cold- 
blooded (poikilothermous) animals, that is, the temperature 
of the body of an individual bee is variable and is the same 
or almost the same as that of the air immediately surround- 
ing the body. All cold-blooded animals usually have a 
temperature slightly above that of the surrounding medium, 
except in the case of animals having a moist skin and sur- 
rounded by air, in which evaporation on the surface of the 
body may cause the temperature of the body to fall a little 
below that of the air. The heat which raises the tempera- 
ture of the individual bee, and collectively of the bee colony, 
above that of the surrounding air is generated chiefly by 
muscular activity. The individual bee can continue mus- 
cular movements only so long as the temperature of the body 
does not fall below 45° F., but at about this temperature it 
loses its power of movement. The highest temperature at 
which bees can live has not been accurately determined but 
it must be over 130° F. 

While the individual bee does not possess the ability to 
maintain a nearly uniform body temperature, as do warm- 
blooded animals, the colony as a whole shows some remark- 
able temperature changes, different from any observed in 
individual bees or in other cold-blooded animals. Warm- 
blooded animals maintain a fairly constant temperature 
which may be either higher or lower than that of the sur- 
rounding air. While the colony of bees may maintain a 
temperature either warmer or colder than the surrounding 
air (colder than the air outside the hive), the temperature 
of the colony is not constant. In warm-blooded animals, 
most of the heat is generated by the processes of internal 
combustion in the assimilation of food, augmented by heat 
due to muscular activity. In the bee, the chief method of 
heat production is by muscular activity, with possibly some 
additional heat from other life processes, and the bee, unlike 



60 Beekeeping 

a warm-blooded animal, promptly cools if muscular activity 
ceases and the surrounding air is cool. The temperature 
changes of other colonial insects have not been studied, but 
it would seem probable from our present knowledge that 
the honeybee is the only insect which is able to generate 
heat sufficient to maintain active movements without hiber- 
nation throughout the winter in the North. 

The most interesting and important phases of the temper- 
ature of the bee colony are to be observed in the winter 
season and this will be discussed at the close of this chapter. 
While many observations have been made on the temper- 
ature of the bee colony during the period of brood-rearing, 
the work has not been done with sufficient detail so that we 
have little information concerning heat generation during 
this season. The foregoing statement perhaps demands 
some explanation. If a colony of bees is disturbed, 1 its 
temperature promptly changes and consequently the inser- 
tion of a mercurial thermometer into the brood nest, or even 
an approach to the hive to read a thermometer already 
inserted, may at times produce abnormal temperature 
conditions. Furthermore, most of the thermometers used 
are of doubtful accuracy and the slow action of a mercury 
thermometer is an additional cause of inaccuracy. It is 
usually stated that during brood-rearing a temperature of 
approximately human blood heat is maintained within the 
cluster and that this temperature is practically uniform. 
The uniformity of the temperature has been greatly over- 
estimated, at least in certain parts of the season, and it may 
vary over several degrees. It rarely exceeds 97° F. How- 
ever, if the temperature of the outside air exceeds the maxi- 
mum hive temperature, the bees reduce the temperature of 
the cluster by fanning, causing a drop in the temperature 
inside the hive by evaporation. 

In the case of other insects, the length of the developmental 
stages varies greatly, according to temperature. Since the 
bee colony virtually creates its own temperature environ- 

1 This is specially true in winter when a definite cluster is formed. 



The Cycle of the Year 61 

ment within the brood nest during brood-rearing, the de- 
velopmental stages are practically uniform in length of time. 
This is a great benefit to the beekeeper, especially in timing 
swarming and similar phenomena where queen cells are 
concerned. It has been found that if brood is removed and 
kept at a temperature lower than is usual in the brood-cham- 
ber, development continues but, as with other insects, it is 
retarded. 

One other point regarding the hive temperature is impor- 
tant. The temperature is not uniform throughout the hive 
but may vary over many degrees in cold weather. This will 
be explained in greater detail under a discussion of bees 
during winter. In any weather, however, the efforts of the 
bees in heat generation are confined to the brood nest or, in 
the absence of brood, to the cluster, except when wax is 
being secreted, when a high temperature is also maintained 
at the point of building. Away from the centers of activity, 
however, the temperature is not raised except by chance 
muscular movements or by convection currents, but may be 
cooled if it is too hot. This perhaps explains the seemingly 
unreconcilable records of hive temperatures during the 
summer. 

SWARMING 

Continued and increased breeding, previously described 
as occurring in early summer, would result in enormous 
colonies if the queen were able to lay eggs with sufficient 
rapidity to meet the demands of such a case. It would not, 
however, result in any increase in the number of colonies. 
Obviously, it frequently happens that an entire colony of 
bees is destroyed, in Nature as well as in the hands of the 
beekeeper, and the very existence of the species depends on 
another method of reproduction. The colony life of the bee 
is so completely developed that it is permissible to think of 
the individuals as merely " winged organs of the colony," as 
Maeterlinck has expressed it. We now come to the breed- 
ing of colonies or swarming. This process of reproduc- 



62 



Beekeeping 



tion may be likened to the simple fission or division observed 
in the protozoa, by which they increase in number. 

Preparation for swarming. 

As the colony increases in strength, the rearing of brood 
is no longer confined to the worker and drone cells but 
special queen cells are built (Fig. 45), in which female larvae 

are fed a specially prepared food, 
royal jelly, and in which the 
course of their development is 
so modified that there result 
queens with their special organs 
instead of worker bees. The 
rearing of queens also occurs if 
a colony becomes queenless by 
the death or removal of the 
queen, provided eggs or young 
larvae are present, or when a 
queen is about to be superseded 
by a young queen because she 
fails in egg-laying. Queen cells 
may be built in advance of the 
laying of eggs in them (pre-con- 
structed cells), as is usually the 
case in swarming, or the cells may 
be built around small female larvae 
which would otherwise become 
workers (post-constructed cells), as is necessary in queenless 
colonies. The eggs from which queens and workers develop 
are identical, the only known cause of the difference in the 
course of their development being the special cells and the 
food provided for the developing queen. 

Issuing of the swarm. 

When the larvae in the queen cells are fully fed, they are 
sealed over as are other larvae. At about the time of this 
sealing, the first (prime) swarm usually issues, although it 




Fig. 45. 
cells 



Group of queen 
Natural size. 



The Cycle of the Year 63 

may be delayed by inclement weather. 1 Swarming consists 
of the departure of the old queen with part 2 of the workers 
from the hive, leaving behind the brood, including the queen 
cells, some adult bees and the stores, except such honey as 
the workers are able to cany in their honey stomachs. 
Before leaving, the bees gorge themselves until the abdomens 
are distended and are thus provided with food for a few 
days, in case the weather is inclement. The queen usually 
lays fewer eggs just before swarming than is usual for that 
season and her abdomen often becomes smaller, enabling 
her to fly more easily: Frequently for a time before the 
issuing of the swarm, the work of the colony in gathering is 
decreased and many of the field bees remain at home, thereby 
crowding the hive. The swarm usually issues on a bright 
day about mid-day 3 and most of the workers in the hive at 
that time leave with the swarm. Those in the field at the 
time of swarming return to the hive and do not follow the 
swarm. 

Stimulus to leave the hive. 

The stimulus to the act of swarming is not understood, but 
it has been observed in hives with glass sides that bees in 
various parts of the hive show signs of excitement, which 
gradually spreads throughout the hive. Sometimes the 
queen leaves among the first but she usually remains inside 
until a considerable number have, left the hive. Since a 
swarm sometimes issues without a queen, she can scarcely 
be considered the leader. This is also shown by the fact 
that when the queen is caged, as a means of swarm preven- 
tion, the bees sometimes swarm, leaving the queen in the cage. 
When a queen is disabled so that she cannot fly or is detained 

1 Races of bees differ somewhat in the time of swarming. Italians tend 
to swarm with the queen cells in an earlier stage of development than other 
races. 

2 Why some go and others remain is not known. They are not sepa- 
rated according to age nor duties. 

3 Swarms usually issue between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. but in warm sultry 
weather may come out earlier, or quite late in the afternoon. 



64 Beekeeping 

by a queen trap (Fig. 30), the bees may make several at- 
tempts to swarm and often finally destroy the old queen, 
sometimes swarming with a virgin raised at this time. 

As soon as the bees leave the entrance there is a striking 
tendency to move upward. Some go upward within the 
hive and if it is opened they pour out at the top and if, as 
sometimes happens, the queen goes up inside instead of out- 
side, the swarm soon returns to the hive. In an analysis of 
swarming this upward movement is to be reckoned with. 

In seeking an explanation of the stimulus to leave the hive, 
there are some manipulations which produce similar results 
and which are of value for purposes of comparison. (1) In 
transferring colonies (p. 245) from a box-hive, an empty 
box is sometimes placed over the inverted box-hive, which is 
then pounded. This drumming causes the bees to fill their 
honey stomachs, after which they gradually move upward 
until practically the entire colony is clustered in the upper 
box in the shape of a swarm. (2) In making artificial 
swarms (p. 283) or in the use of the swarm box (p. 422) for 
starting artificial queen cells, the bees gorge themselves and 
later cluster like a swarm. (3) If bees are smoked exces- 
sively, they gorge themselves and begin to run (especially 
true of black bees), usually in an upward direction. In these 
three examples the bees are " demoralized " ; the colony is 
disorganized. The bees usually do not sting and most of 
them do not attempt to fly so long as they can proceed in the 
desired direction on foot. They can be moved to a new loca- 
tion after these operations, in which event practically none of 
them return to the old location. 

The same peculiar manner of leaving the hive may be 
induced by placing bees in a box with a small opening. If a 
substance with a repelling odor is now placed in the box, 
the bees shoot out the opening as in swarming. This manner 
of exit may be merely incidental to rapidity of movement and 
may not be specially characteristic. The fact that move- 
ments can be duplicated does not necessarily' imply similar 
causes. 




Fig. 46. — A swarm cluster. Fig. 48. — Capturing a swarm. 



The Cycle of the Year 65 

Behavior of the issuing swarm. 

The issuing of a swarm is one of the most exciting and 
interesting incidents in the apiary. The bees rush from the 
hive, giving the observer the impression that they are pursued 
or " possessed of the devil." They appear intoxicated with 
the " swarm dizziness" and whirl in "bacchanal delight," as 
if drunk with joy. Even the beekeeper becomes excited. 
The bees circle in the air and the whirling swarm may drift 
about the apiary for a time. There is an excitement in the 
" swarm tone" which is infectious. 

It is especially to be noted that swarming bees rarely 
sting, and it is commonly stated that they cannot sting 
because their abdomens are distended with the load of honey 
in the honey stomach. This latter statement is incorrect, 
if taken literally, but even the hardened beekeeper finds 
enjoyment in walking into the midst of the circling swarm, in 
spite of the fact that he has probably tried to prevent swarm- 
ing, and he needs no veil under such circumstances. 

Clustering. 

The swarm after a time begins to settle on the limb of a 
tree or some such support (Fig. 46) and the excitement is 
past. Like the issuing of the swarm from the hive, the 
incentive to cluster is not understood. The queen may be 
the first to alight, and this seems quite natural since she is 
heavy and a poor flyer compared with the workers, but she is 
just as likely to join the cluster after it is partly formed. 
However, the cluster is usually not formed if the queen has 
not accompanied the swarm. One feature is noticeable in 
the forming cluster, however, which perhaps throws some 
light on the subject. It is well known that when bees are 
thrown in front of a hive the abdomen is raised and the wings 
are fanned vigorously. At such a time the dorsal scent 
organ (p. 172), located on the intersegmental membrane 
between the sixth and seventh terga of the abdomen, is 
exposed by the bending ventrally of the last visible abdominal 
segment. During clustering, the bees on the outside of the 



66 Beekeeping 

mass expose this gland and the wings are moved rapidly so 
that it seems probable that the odor which is emitted and 
dispersed attracts the flying bees to the cluster. 

If the cluster has been formed in an inaccessible place, the 
beekeeper often finds it desirable to have the bees move to 
another support. The cluster will gradually move (more 
readily upward) into the dark interior of a box placed nearby, 
this movement being more rapid if a piece of comb, or 
better, comb with brood, is placed inside the box (Fig. 47). 
If the queen has failed to fly or has been prevented in some 
way, the swarm usually does not cluster but returns to the 
hive, and if a cluster does form it usually breaks up in a few 
minutes. 

In a large apiary when swarms are issuing frequently, 
many swarms will settle on one particular support. The 
only plausible explanation for this peculiar action is that 
the support retains an odor acquired from contact with the 
swarm which acts as an attraction to other bees in the act 
of swarming. This lends considerable weight to the theory 
that clustering is a response to an odor stimulus. Bee- 
keepers sometimes take advantage of this phenomenon 
and provide an easily accessible and readily handled sup- 
port for the clusters. The swarm catcher (Fig. 47) is readily 
adapted to this purpose. In Langstroth-Dadant l (p. 218) 
is the statement that swarming bees cluster on any dark 
object that resembles a swarm in shape, especially if that 
object affords adequate support. This presupposes that 
bees are attracted to the clustering place through sight, for 
which supposition there is little evidence. In this discussion 
an old comb is mentioned as a favorite support, but in this case 
it cannot be claimed that sight is the only means of perception. 

Supposed aids to clustering. 

An old practice at the time of swarming was to beat tin 
pans, ring bells or otherwise to create a din, in the belief 

1 Langstroth-Dadant, 1907. Langstroth on the hive and honey bee, re- 
vised by Dadant. Hamilton, 111., 575 pp. 




FiG. 47. — Swarm catcher. 



The Cycle of the Year 67 

that the distracting noise would cause the bees to settle. 
Modern beekeepers have abandoned this relic of antiquity, 
since it has no effect whatsoever on the clustering. The 
origin of this ancient practice has been variously explained, 
one plausible theory being that it arose from the practice 
of notifying neighbors of the issuing of a swarm, so that 
ownership could be claimed. Nowadays a bell is not a 
part of the apiary equipment and no evil seems to have 
come from neglecting this rite. Flashing lights on the 
swarm by means of a mirror is another theoretical impedi- 
ment to long flights in which the modern beekeeper places 
no confidence. 

Scouts. 

Under natural conditions, when the queen is present, the 
swarm will hang on the support from fifteen minutes to a 
day or more. The cluster is usually then broken and the 
swarm flies away (often for a considerable distance) to 
establish itself in a hollow tree or cave. That scouts locate 
the future abode has been claimed, probably correctly. 
Baron v. Berlepsch, the celebrated German beekeeper, 
records l an instance of scouts working for several days in 
advance of swarming to prepare a place. Usually it can- 
not be so well demonstrated that scouts have been sent 
out, but the accuracy with which swarms often fly to a 
cavity without delay indicates that they are in some manner 
led to the place. How this is done is not known. Similar 
instances of bees being led to certain places are discussed 
in a later chapter (p. 120). 

After the swarm has been removed (Fig. 48) a few bees 
will often be seen around the former location of the cluster, 
either at rest or on the wing. These bees are evidently 
attracted or held by the odor which adheres to the support. 
That these are scouts which return after the cluster is hived 

1 v. Berlepsch, 1852. Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, VII, Nr. 7. Reprinted 
in v. Buttel-Reepen, 1906. Are bees reflex machines? (Eng. trans.) 



68 Beekeeping 

has been suggested. At any rate, the modern practice is 
to hive a swarm away from the clustering place for fear re- 
turning scouts may draw away the colony. 

Entering the new home. 

When a swarm enters a new abode, the first bees to locate 
the entrance stand with their legs extended and the abdomen 
raised to an angle of about 45°, while their dorsal scent 
glands (pp. 65 and 172) are exposed. They fan vigorously 
and the odor given off is sufficiently strong to be perceived 
if the nose is placed within an inch or two of the fanning 
bees. Bees to the rear take up the same position until 
finally the whole mass is fanning and moving toward the 
entrance x (Fig. 49). This may be observed also if bees 
are thrown in front of the hive. 

When a swarm enters a cavity, the bees promptly clean 
it of loose pieces and dirt, the large pieces and irregularities 
of the cavity being ultimately covered with propolis. Large 
numbers of bees, especially the younger ones, now hang 
on one another in curtains while the secretion of wax takes 
place for the building of combs. The supply of honey 
carried in the honey stomachs is adequate to nourish the 
colony for a time if no nectar can be brought to the hive. 
As soon as there are cells available the queen begins egg- 
laying, the field bees gather the available nectar and 
pollen and these activities increase as the comb is sup- 
plied by the comb builders. The swarm is equipped as a 
normal colony in a surprisingly short time, if the nectar 
supply is adequate. 

1 If by chance the first bees are headed in the wrong direction or if the 
hive is moved after the fanning has begun, the whole mass may march 
away in the wrong direction. In shaking bees in front of the hive it is 
therefore advisable to toss some of them in the entrance, v. Buttel- 
Reepen attributes this action to the sound given off in fanning, but there 
is little to support this belief. In this marching, any slight obstacle in- 
terferes greatly with the progress of the mass of bees, which would scarcely 
be the case if sound were the attracting stimulus. Even the smallest 
amount of smoke interferes for the moment with the entrance of a swarm 
and smoking should be avoided at this time. 



The Cycle of the Year 69 

Parent colony. 

This name is usually given to that part of the original 
colony which remains in the hive after the swarm issues. 
It is misleading in that the actual parent of the individual 
bees, the queen, departs with the first swarm but, as ordinarily 
used, the term indicates merely the colony from which the 
swarm issues and is not misunderstood. The course of 
events in this colony will now be given, it being assumed 
that, in the present instance, another swarm will not be 
cast. In a few days (often about eight days) after the de- 
parture of the swarm, the first young queen emerges from 
her cell by gnawing her way out, often with the help of the 
workers. 1 She may destroy the other queens by gnawing 
into their cells, so that she is without a rival in the colony, 
and she may be assisted in this destruction by the workers. 

Mating flight. 

When a few days old, the time depending somewhat on 
the weather and the race of bees, the virgin queen flies 
from the hive for the first time. Her early flights, often 
several in number, resemble the first flights of worker bees 
for she circles about the entrance, gradually venturing farther 
away, apparently taking note of the location of the hive. 
At last when from five to eight days old, she flies quickly 
from the hive without preliminary circling and flies upward 
in larger and larger circles, often until she is lost to vision. 2 

1 Before the queen emerges, the bees frequently gnaw away part of the 
capping of the queen cell, making it thinner and smooth. As the virgin 
queen cuts her way out she may be fed by worker bees. In cutting the 
queen cell, it frequently happens that a circular cut is made and at one place 
the capping is left intact, forming a kind of flap. After the queen emerges 
this flap may spring back into place, confusing the beekeeper who sometimes 
does not recognize the cell as an empty one. 

2 In the summer of 1903, the author and an equally ardent co-worker 
made a series of observations on the flight of virgin queens in the vivarium 
of the Zoological Department of the University of Pennsylvania. Small 
nuclei were placed about the room, which is covered with a glass roof, and 
a full colony was so arranged that the workers could fly freely to the outside 
but the drones could leave only to the inside. The drones used had never 



70 Beekeeping 

On such a trip she meets the drone and after mating 1 takes 
place she returns to the hive. She may be followed back 
by a considerable number of drones which sometimes re- 
main about the front of the hive for several hours. The 
mating flight may last only a few minutes or may be pro- 
tracted to over a half-hour, probably depending on the 
number of drones in flight near by. The male genital organs 
which are torn off in mating may often be seen protruding 
from the queen's vagina and this is useful to the beekeeper 
as evidence of mating. These parts shrivel in a short time 
and are removed by the workers. In about two days after 

flown outdoors, it being found that drones which had experienced flight 
in the open air soon wore themselves out on the glass in their efforts to 
escape. Virgin queens were introduced to the nuclei and their flights 
were observed from the rafters above. The first flights were circles of 
small diameter and while on these flights the queens were never seen to 
be followed by drones. If the virgins did not fly frequently enough to 
satisfy the observers they would sometimes be removed and tossed into 
the air, when they behaved normally. Finally the virgin would dart from 
the entrance and swiftly circle upward, often followed by several drones. 
She would soon strike the glass roof and alight and the drones would at 
once disperse, there apparently being no attraction in a queen at rest. It 
has long been the dream of beekeepers to induce mating in an inclosure, 
so that mating can be controlled for purposes of selection and the observa- 
tions here mentioned were instigated by this desire. No queens mated in 
the room. The virgin queens usually returned to the nuclei unassisted, 
unless the flight occurred late in the afternoon. 

During the summers of 1903 and 1904, several unsuccessful attempts 
were made to produce drone-laying queens (p. 187) by confining virgin 
queens to prevent mating flights. During the morning the small nuclei 
showed no special signs of excitement but in the early afternoon the queens 
would attempt to eave the hive and would be prevented by the perforated 
zinc over the entrances. They would sometimes continue these efforts 
until dark. While this was going on, the workers would crowd around the 
entrance both inside and out and rush about "as if offering assistance." 
These efforts were not observed during the first few days after emergence 
of the queens from the cell and finally the queens were no longer seen at 
the entrances. Within a month they had all died. Whether this was due 
to over-exertion or to the inability to mate or whether they were killed by 
the workers could not be determined. Keeping virgin queens in cages was 
equally unsuccessful. 

1 The act of mating is rarely seen, but a few beekeepers have reported 
instances in which this was observed. Apparently after the union the queen 
and drone fall to the ground and the queen turns around and around until 
she tears the copulatory organs from the dead drone. 



The Cycle of the Year 71 

mating, the queen begins to lay eggs and from that time 
on the routine of egg-laying is her portion. The so-called 
parent colony is now normal, with a laying queen, comb, 
stores and brood. 

After-swarms t 

If the colony which cast the first swarm is populous, there 
may be left in the parent colony enough bees to cause the 
issuing of other swarms. These are called second-swarms, 
third-swarms or, collectively, after-swarms. When the first 
virgin queen emerges she often does not destroy the other 
queen cells but, instead, flies from the hive with another 
swarm. This may be repeated several times as other queens 
emerge, the swarms usually becoming successively smaller. 
The queens departing with after-swarms are virgins and 
consequently must mate before they are able to fulfill their 
duties normally. Good beekeepers make every effort to 
prevent after-swarms as they are usually too weak to be 
of value and they deplete the parent colony, making the 
gathering of surplus honey impossible. When virgin queens 
fly out to mate, they may be accompanied by a little 
" swarm," which affords some evidence that the swarm is 
led out by the queen. Nuclei used for mating queens are 
often almost depopulated in this way. 

If the old queen in a colony is prevented from flying or 
is unable to fly (as by having the wings clipped), the bees 
may make several efforts to swarm without her. They 
often finally kill the old queen and depart with a virgin. 
Such a swarm may be the first to issue from a colony in the 
season, but it is virtually an after-swarm in its composition 
and behavior. Swarms of this kind often cause the bee- 
keeper trouble if he is unaware that the old queen has 
been superseded, and consequently if the old queen was 
clipped he thinks that the swarm is without a queen and 
will return. 

After-swarms are the plague of the beekeeper's life, for 
they seem to break all the laws of the bee colony. They 



72 Beekeeping 

often cluster without a queen, they are fleet on the wing, 
they may fly directly to the woods without clustering and 
they cannot be accurately foretold, as can a first swarm, 
when the queen cells are of value as a forewarning. 

Activity of swarms. 

It is often maintained that the bees in a swarm work 
with greater vigor than those which have not swarmed. 
While this cannot be accepted without qualification, there 
are certain activities which are more in evidence at this 
time. Wax secretion is apparently carried on more readily 
than under other conditions, and if nectar is available the 
bees may be so manipulated that a large amount of surplus 
honey is obtained. To take advantage of the supposedly 
increased activity of the swarm, the same conditions are 
partially induced artificially in various manipulations. 
The effect of swarming on egg-laying has been mentioned. 
It is probable that the supposed vigor of swarms is. due not 
so much to the accomplishment of more work as to the 
diverting of the labor of the colony into lines which are 
more conspicuous to the beekeeper. It will be shown 
later that colonies which swarm produce less honey than 
those which make no effort to swarm. 

Swarming conditions induced artificially. 

While so-called artificial swarms are a part of the practical 
manipulations to be discussed in later chapters, it may be 
of interest to record some attempts at producing swarming 
conditions which throw some light on the natural phe- 
nomenon. During the summers of 1912 and 1913, the 
author was interested in the taking of motion pictures of 
bee activities. In the first season, Fortune favored the 
project by permitting the use of a natural swarm, which 
was, however, artificially delayed until the camera was ad- 
justed. In all cases the clustering was produced artificially. 
In the first case, a swarm issued on a Thursday morning 
and the queen was caught, caged and placed in the second 



The Cycle of the Year 73 

story of the hive, thus causing the bees to return. At 
eight o'clock the following Saturday morning the queen 
was liberated and about nine o'clock the camera was focused 
on the entrance and front of the hive. In not more than 
fifteen minutes after everything was ready and as the wait- 
ing group was in attendance seated on adjoining hives, the 
swarm came out and the camera was put in action. When 
the (clipped) queen left the hive, the camera was stopped 
and she was put into a queen cage which was then tied to 
the limb of a tree, so situated that a swarm hanging on it 
would show against the sky. When the bees returned to 
the hive they were shaken into a box and thrown uncere- 
moniously into the branches of the tree around the caged 
queen. Those that returned to the hive were again brought 
out. In a short time the fanning observed in a natural 
cluster was set up and the bees gradually formed a shapely 
cluster. To get pictures of the settling of the swarm, the 
branch was now shaken, at first gently and then more and 
more vigorously, and the bees returned to the same branch 
in the exact manner of the clustering of a natural swarm. 
Here again the camera man was busy. The further treat- 
ment of the bees was exactly as with a natural swarm. 

Since the first pictures were not satisfactory, the per- 
formance was repeated twice the next year but without 
the aid of a natural swarm. The bees were shaken into an 
empty hive on the old stand with the entrance closed by a 
stick. The clustered bees were then loosened from the 
inside of the hive cover by pounding, and as the stick was 
removed the camera was started. The rushing out of the 
bees could not be distinguished from that of a natural swarm. 
The bees were then shaken into a box and placed on a branch 
about the caged queen. These unusual procedures suggest 
that the clustering is brought about by the attraction of the 
odor from the dorsal scent gland and that the bees may be 
induced to abandon their old hive by the shaking incident 
to this manipulation. It is also suggested that the queen 
plays an important part in clustering. 



74 Beekeeping 

Peculiarities of bees in swarming. 

A bee normally returns from the field to its own hive and, 
while it may make mistakes, it " knows" its own location. 
This is accomplished by the exercise of a memory of loca- 
tion (p. 179). When the swarm issues, the memory of the 
old location is abandoned (not destroyed), but if the queen 
is lost or removed this memory is again called into action 
and the bees return to the old hive. If the queen goes 
with the swarm, it may be placed in a new hive, even right 
beside the old one if desired, and the bees no longer return 
to the old hive. On the return from future trips to the 
field they go directly to the new home. The memory of 
the old location is no longer called into action and is finally 
lost. This is accomplished also in artificial swarming but 
perhaps not to so marked a degree. 

When a swarm issues and the air is filled with the circling 
bees, it sometimes happens that other colonies which are 
preparing to swarm will send out swarms prematurely and 
the various swarms will mingle in the air and in the cluster. 
Even if this does not happen, drones from various colonies 
join the swarm. These facts indicate that swarming bees 
have an attractive influence toward other bees. This has 
been attributed to the noise made by flying bees, which is 
so well known to beekeepers and which is sometimes called 
the " swarm tone." Since it is not surely determined that 
bees hear, it may be that this attraction is not one of sound 
but may be one of smell. 

The issuing of premature swarms and of numerous after- 
swarms may become so common as to demoralize the apiary 
and swarms may issue several at a time, without queens, 
when no queen cells have been built or when the colony 
has recently swarmed. Several swarms may unite in one 
cluster. The impulse to swarm is known among beekeepers 
as the " swarming fever" and the exaggerated conditions 
just described are often discussed as if this " fever" were 
infectious. Under such conditions, the usual rules for 
swarming laid down by the beekeeper are seemingly dis- 



The Cycle of the Year 75 

regarded, which may be construed as evidence that, after 
all, the beekeeper knows little about swarming. 

Since swarming bees influence other bees to swarm pre- 
maturely, it is evident that these conditions may become 
worse in large commercial apiaries than would be the case 
if colonies were scattered as wild bees are or where only a 
few colonies are kept together. This abnormal condition 
is largely the result of modern beekeeping, not only in the 
maintenance of large apiaries but more especially in the 
manipulations practiced in comb-honey production. 

It is sometimes assumed that bees from colonies about to 
swarm get mixed in other colonies and serve to incite swarm- 
ing in their new homes. There is no good evidence for this 
belief. 

It should also be noted that when preparations for swarm- 
ing are well under way, the various manipulations devised 
to prevent it are usually unsuccessful and the only way to 
get the colony back to normal (normal from the standpoint 
of the beekeeper) is either to allow it to swarm naturally, 
to make an artificial swarm, or to remove or cage the queen. 
This and numerous other facts observed in swarm control 
indicate that the condition of the bees which induces swarm- 
ing is not one which comes into existence suddenly, but 
is the result of a gradual development. Whether this con- 
dition is physiological or psychological is undetermined. 
Whatever the condition may be, it is in a sense at odds 
with the gathering instinct, so that one of the most difficult 
problems of the northern comb-honey producer is to keep 
his colonies in the optimum condition for gathering, which 
is equivalent to swarm prevention. 

Cause of swarming. 

Perhaps no subject in bee behavior has been so much 
discussed as the cause of. swarming. The simplest way to 
account for this phenomenon is to attribute it to " instinct" 
but naturally in doing this we are no nearer an explanation 
than we were before. Instinct is blamed for many things 



76 Beekeeping 

in bee literature, it being overlooked that instincts are called 
into action only by definite conditions in the environment. 
It is also a common error to assume that bees voluntarity 
call forth this instinct when " things look favorable/' but 
this is similar to the giving of human motives to other 
actions and is unjustifiable here as elsewhere. This kind 
of error is mentioned again here because it appears so fre- 
quently in the discussion of swarming. 

Overcrowding of the hive, lack of ventilation, heat, an 
abundance of drones and other conditions have been re- 
peatedly given as causes or contributing conditions to 
swarming. Unfortunately for these speculations, the con- 
ditions named may be partially or entirely lacking at the 
time of swarming, although generally they are present in 
colonies about to swarm. To establish the cause of swarm- 
ing, however, it is first necessary to find a condition or 
conditions which are invariably present. While this prob- 
lem is as yet unsolved, an analysis of some of the facts ob- 
served may be helpful. 

It should first of all be observed that swarming is par- 
ticularly prevalent in the northern regions. Near the 
northern limits of the white clover belt, for example, there 
is a definite, relatively short period when swarming may 
be expected. This comes before and during the white 
clover honey-flow but when the nectar is coming in freely 
swarming may become rare. Beekeepers usually explain 
this by saying that the bees are too busy gathering nectar 
to swarm, but this explanation is unsatisfactory. Farther 
south, there is a less well marked swarming season and the 
percentage of colonies which swarm or which prepare to 
swarm decreases as a rule, until under average tropical 
conditions swarming becomes much less abundant, the 
swarming period being less definite and more prolonged. 
There are some exceptions to this general statement. Swarm- 
ing may extend over six weeks or more in parts of Florida but 
is never as excessive as it sometimes is in the North. 

It should further be noted that colonies headed by young 



The Cycle of the Year 77 

queens are less likely to swarm than those with older queens. 
For example, if a young queen is introduced to a colony in 
August the probability of a swarm from that colony the 
following spring is less than if the queen were reared early 
the preceding spring. 

Within the white clover region, some interesting differences 
may be noted. Geo. S. Demuth of the Bureau of Ento- 
mology reports the following interesting variations. In south- 
ern Indiana swarming has usually ceased before the beginning 
of the white clover honey-flow, while in the northern part 
of the State the swarming season extends into the honey- 
flow. This indicates that the stimulus of the heavy honey- 
flow is not the cause of swarming. In one season which 
came under Demuth's observation, white clover failed 
to secrete enough nectar to provide surplus honey in north- 
ern Indiana and colonies were unable to build up sufficiently 
to swarm. In August, however, there was a heavy yield 
from heartsease, the colonies built up rapidly and there 
was a well marked period of swarming. Demuth at one 
time practiced moving his bees in the fall to the Kankakee 
swamps for the Spanish needle honey-flow. While swarm- 
ing was common in the spring during the white clover honey- 
flow, it was not so during the fall honey-flow. The same 
thing is observed when clover is followed by buckwheat. 
While, therefore, honey-flows influence swarming by provid- 
ing stores whereby colonies may build up to swarming 
strength, they can scarcely be considered as primary causes 
of swarming. 

The lack of adequate space for breeding is a common 
condition in colonies from which swarms issue and the con- 
traction of the brood chamber in comb-honey production 
probably contributes to excessive swarming. However, 
if the contraction is excessive swarming is greatly reduced 
and if this is carried to the extreme we have artificial swarm- 
ing, in which operation all the brood combs are removed. 

There is a marked difference in the amount of swarming 
according to the type of honey produced. In the produc- 



78 Beekeeping 

tion of extracted-honey, in which the bees are provided 
with an abundance of empty combs, swarming is much less 
common than from the contracted and crowded hives con- 
sidered necessary for the production of comb-honey. 
Similarly in the " non-swarming hive" devised by L. A. 
Aspinwall, Jackson, Michigan, an abundance of room is 
provided in the brood chamber by the insertion of slatted 
wooden separators between the brood combs. From this 
array of seemingly irreconcilable statements, one thing in 
common may be observed. So far as contraction is con- 
cerned, when swarming is less common there is room avail- 
able for the young bees which have not yet begun their 
field duties. 

In the preparation of his Farmers' Bulletin on Comb 
Honey, 1 Demuth makes a careful analysis of the various 
methods employed in the control of swarming, which is so 
important a problem in the production of comb-honey. 
The following quotation from this bulletin gives his con- 
clusions : "Any manipulation for swarm control, whether 
applied after the colony has acquired the 'swarming fever' 
or applied to all colonies alike previous to the swarming 
season, is based upon a single principle — a temporary dis- 
turbance in the continuity of the daily emergence of brood. 
This disturbance should occur just previous to or during 
the swarming season." While the various methods of 
swarm control are reserved for a later chapter, the funda- 
mental principle that there must be a temporary disturbance 
in the continuity of brood emergence, which Demuth was 
the first to point out, is of primary importance in a con- 
sideration of the cause of swarming. The methods de- 
scribed in Demuth' s bulletin are those which have proved 
reliable in the hands of practical beekeepers throughout 
the United States and yet these methods do not have in 
common those things which are called for in considering 
overcrowding, overheating, lack of ventilation or the presence 

1 Demuth, Geo. S., 1912. Comb Honey. Farmers' Bulletin 503, U. S. 
Dept. of Agric. [see especially pp. 34-35]. 



The Cycle of the Year 79 

of drones as causes of swarming. If these things are really 
causes of swarming it is somewhat remarkable that the 
application of remedies for these conditions are not more 
serviceable in controlling swarming. 

The principle involved in swarm control and the differ- 
ences in the amount and persistence of swarming observed 
in different regions and under different systems of manipu- 
lations indicate that swarming colonies have at least one 
condition in common. While this condition may not be 
the cause of swarming, it is at least interesting to study its 
application. Gerstung advances the theory that swarming 
is caused by the presence of too many young bees in the 
hive. These bees, as will be discussed in a chapter to fol- 
low, are those which feed the larvae and the usual supposi- 
tion is that there is too much larval food prepared and that 
the presence of this food in the nurse bees induces the build- 
ing of queen cells and the rearing of queens. While this 
effort at explaining the results of the presence of an unusual 
number of young bees may be open to question, it may at 
least be pointed out that swarming is always accompanied 
by an unbalanced condition of the brood-chamber (not of 
the hive) in regard to the age of the bees found there. If 
the various preceding statements concerning swarming are 
re-examined, it is seen that when swarming occurs normally 
there is actually this unbalanced condition. In the north- 
ern regions breeding reaches its maximum in a shorter time 
than in the South and consequently as this brood emerges 
the colony suddenly acquires an unusual number of young 
adults. Where the season opens earlier this condition is 
reached earlier (cf. southern and northern Indiana), while 
in the South, where breeding increases more gradually, 
this condition becomes less marked. Finally in the tropics 
the preponderance of young bees does not occur unless 
breeding is decreased by a dearth and begun again by a 
rapid flow. Variation in seasons may cause either a more 
gradual breeding in the North or a greater rapidity farther 
south. This may explain the divergence in the experience 



80 Beekeeping 

of beekeepers from year to year in the number of colonies 
which prepare to swarm. If there is a dearth of nectar, 
swarming may be lacking and may accompany a later honey- 
flow (c/. example of heartsease honey-flow, p. 77), when 
the unbalanced condition likewise occurs. Where an 
abundance of room is provided (e.g. extracted-honey pro- 
duction), the younger bees are usually found in the upper 
portions of the hive away from the brood, and to this extent 
they are eliminated. In the Aspinwall hive, the space 
between the slats provides room for the young bees away 
from the brood. The distinction of having the young bees 
away from the brood is probably important and finds its 
application in the proper manipulation of comb-honey 
supers (p. 314). A queen is capable of maximum egg- 
laying only after some weeks of egg-production and this 
may serve to explain the lack of swarming in colonies headed 
by queens reared and introduced in August. Demuth's 
conclusion on the control of swarming exactly coincides 
with this theory as to cause. 

This theory is not again brought forward as a satisfactory 
solution of the cause of swarming. It is desired at this 
time merely to point out that, of all the theories advanced, 
this most nearly satisfies the various and divergent con- 
ditions observed in connection with this peculiar phenome- 
non. The subject is one of great interest and of the utmost 
importance to the practical beekeeper. It is worthy of 
more serious investigation than it has so far received. 

Swarming-out. 

Bees sometimes abandon their nest and to this phenomenon 
is usually given the name " swarming-out." This is mislead- 
ing since it indicates some relation between this and swarm- 
ing and it is not definitely known that any such relation 
exists. Swarming-out may occur under a variety of con- 
ditions, the most common of which is in the early spring 
(or at other times) if the stores are exhausted. These are 
also known as " hunger swarms." Some of the published 



The Cycle of the Year 81 

records of extraordinarily early swarms are doubtless in- 
stances of swarming-out rather than of swarming. Nuclei 
used in queen-rearing are frequently depopulated, but this 
may be a case of the bees accompanying the virgin queen 
on her mating flight. When American foul brood is present 
in a colony, swarming-out is of common occurrence, the 
bees abandoning the hive when in advanced stages of the 
disease. Whether this is due to the influence of the (to 
us) unpleasant odor is not clear. 

Somewhat similar is the abandonment of the hive so 
frequent after hiving artificial or natural swarms or after 
treatment of a brood disease. After the artificial swarm is 
made, the bees may leave immediately or they may begin 
work and then desert the hive within twenty-four hours or 
even later. This is prevented if a comb containing un- 
sealed larvse is given the colony or, if a queen trap is placed 
over the entrance, the deserting bees will return to the 
imprisoned queen. When bees swarm-out they may cluster 
or they may fly away as after-swarms often do. After 
artificial swarming, a colony may repeatedly attempt to 
swarm-out, suggesting the intensified swarming sometimes 
observed in northern comb-honey apiaries. After sufficient 
comb is built and when larvse have hatched, this trouble 
disappears. The swarming-out of colonies under adverse 
conditions suggests the reported action of giant bees (Apis 
dorsata), which are said to abandon their combs if attacked 
by the wax-moth, or to migrate with the change in seasons 
to districts where nectar is available. 

GATHERING OF NECTAR AND STORING OF HONEY 

At any time that nectar is available, if the weather is 
suitable for flight, the bees gather nectar to be converted 
into honey for use as food. Usually, as early in the spring 
as bees are able to leave the hive for extended flights, there 
is some nectar available but, under the adverse condition of 
spring, when the colonies are weak and when flying is diffi- 

G 



82 Beekeeping 

cult, no more honey can be obtained than bees need for 
their own use and usually they must draw on their old 
stores during this season. In almost every localitj^ there 
are later periods when no nectar is available or at least 
when there is less than enough to maintain the colony. 
That commercial beekeeping may be possible, there must 
be other periods when the amount of honey produced is 
in excess of the requirements of the bees until the next 
honey-flow. This surplus may become the beekeeper's. 1 

Periods of surplus depend solely on the plants of the region 
and consequently they vary with different localities, as do 
the plants. The problem confronting the beekeeper, there- 
fore, is so to manipulate his bees that, when nectar is avail- 
able near his apiary, the bees may be in condition to secure 
the maximum quantity. Varying conditions call for dif- 
ferent systems of management. This fact is well known 
to practical beekeepers but, nevertheless, these differences 
lead to confusion. For example, a beekeeper in the white 
clover region works out a method by which he is able to 
control swarming and thereby to secure maximum returns. 
The system is published, whereupon it is perhaps tried 
by beekeepers in buckwheat, Spanish needle or alfalfa 
regions. The bee journals are probably then filled with 
articles by these men who perhaps report failure. There 
would be great good from this interchange of results did 
it not tend too often to create a belief that, for example, 
bees in Colorado behave peculiarly because they are in 

1 It may not be amiss to call attention to the incorrectness of the concep- 
tion that bees and, in fact, all plants and animals were created or evolved 
for the use of man. It would scarcely be necessary to refer to this were 
it not that frequently such statements appear in the bee journals. Not 
until one realizes that every species of plant and animal is in a struggle 
for its own existence, without regard for the welfare of any other species, 
can one get a correct conception of the facts of Nature. The honeybee 
was evolved from less specialized insects because the changes fitted it better 
to its environment ; they store honey because the instinct to do so fits 
them better to their environment. The fact that man can take some of 
this honey should not cause him to think that all this course of evolution 
was for his benefit. 



The Cycle of the Year 83 

Colorado. In other words, the difference in " locality" is 
too often considered as a matter of geography. Obviously, 
political boundaries are nothing to bees and they behave 
similarly everywhere under similar conditions. The differ- 
ences lie in a failure to observe and to record the peculiar 
conditions of the " locality," to appreciate the underlying 
causes of the behavior of the bees and to explain why the 
manipulation is a success or a failure, as the case may be, 
in the light of local conditions. If these distinctions were 
better understood, it would save much loss of effort and 
many failures. Obviously, a beekeeper should know not 
only what to do and when to do it, but why. It frequently 
happens that a beekeeper going from one place to another 
attempts to follow his former practices in the new place 
and usually this leads to failure. 

The flows of nectar which are of value for surplus are 
those which come after the colonies are strong, but earlier 
honey-flows are of great value in providing stores and in 
furnishing a stimulus to breeding. For each situation, 
it is therefore most desirable that the plants which furnish 
nectar be known and that the usual time of blossoming be 
learned. With this information, the beekeeper can so 
manipulate his colonies as to obtain maximum results. 
The study of the periods of blossoming is especially neces- 
sary in the more northern regions where the honey-flows 
are sharply circumscribed. In the South, the honey-flows 
more usually run together and there is less difficulty in 
having colonies strong for the surplus honey-flows. Honey 
plants do not bloom in the same relative times in different 
localities. For example, in some places white clover has 
usually ceased to secrete nectar before the basswood honey- 
flow begins while in others they are mixed. Following the 
clover honey-flow there is often a dearth until the fall flowers 
begin to secrete, but in some northern localities white clover 
may be delayed and the fall flow advanced until they leave 
practically no interval. 

A current fallacy should perhaps be denied. Bees do 



84 Beekeeping 

not cease to store honey in the tropics. Just where a con- 
trary statement originated is difficult to learn, but the 
supposed fact is sometimes used as a demonstration of the 
wonderful wisdom of bees in learning that nectar is always 
obtainable. It has also been used as an evidence of adapta- 
tion. The great crops of surplus honey obtained in tropical 
countries are sufficient denial. 

The gathering of nectar and the storage of honey is a 
pure instinct, in that it is done without previous experience, 
for a definite purpose and with no knowledge of the end 
to be accomplished. As will be explained in the following 
chapter, this is normally the work of the older bees in the 
colony. The nectar is carried to the hive in the honey 
stomach (Fig. 60) where it is regurgitated into cells of the 
combs. Here it is " ripened " into honey. This ripening 
consists in the removal of the surplus moisture, the water 
in honey usually being about twenty per cent of the total, 
while nectar is often over sixty per cent water. The chemical 
composition of nectars has not been sufficiently studied and, 
indeed, this is a hard problem, because of the difficulty of 
obtaining sufficient quantities without modification. Enough 
is known, however, to allow the assumption that the ripening 
process also includes the changing of sucrose (cane sugar) into 
invert sugars (dextrose and levulose). 

In the laboratory inversion is accomplished by the addi- 
tion of an acid to the cane sugar solution and there is , a 
small amount of acid in honey. What this acid is has not 
been determined, it being usually calculated in analyses 
"as formic acid," which must not be misinterpreted as 
indicating that the acid actually is formic acid. It in- 
dicates merely that in the analysis the acidity is calculated 
as if the acid were formic acid. « It was formerly believed 
that the poison of the bee sting is formic acid and various 
fanciful theories have been advanced to explain the Origin 
of the formic acid supposed to be present in honey. The 
worst of these explanations is that just before sealing the 
honey, a worker bee puts a drop of poison from the sting 



The Cycle m of the Year 85 

into the honey to preserve it. No such action has been 
observed. Possibly these speculations are the basis for the 
calculation of the acidity of honey by the chemist " as formic." 

The conversion of sucrose to invert sugars may also be 
accomplished by the action of enzymes and the bee pro- 
duces these, although what part of the bee's body is the 
origin of the enzymes is not yet fully established. Honey, 
as stored in cells, contains some suspended pollen grains 
which are a probable additional source of enzymes. In- 
version doubtless continues after the honey is sealed. 

The instinct to gather nectar and to store honey is not 
universally predominant in the activities of a colony, even 
though nectar is available. When a colony is preparing 
to swarm it does not store as actively as at other times and 
one of the serious problems of the northern beekeeper, 
especially the comb-honey producer, is to keep his bees in 
proper condition for storing. Since swarming and storing 
are both instinctive activities, the substitution of one for 
the other assuredly does not imply knowledge of future 
needs, as is sometimes claimed. After swarming is over, 
the storing instinct appears as prominently as usual. 

Collection of other materials. 

The gathering of pollen and propolis and the collection of 
water are likewise activities of the colony. It is sometimes 
stated that pollen is gathered only when needed but this 
is not true, for queenless colonies gather large quantities. 
The advice is occasionally given to watch the entrances of 
colonies in the spring to determine whether pollen is coming 
in, it being stated that queenless colonies may be detected 
by a lack of pollen gathering. This is not a safe criterion. 
Propolis is collected most abundantly in the late summer 
and autumn and usually only when there is no heavy nectar- 
flow. Water is needed at practically all times during the 
breeding season, perhaps more especially in hot weather. 
The bringing of water to the hive is most noticeable in the 
early spring. 



86 Beekeeping 



KILLING OF THE DRONES 

At the close of the honey-flow and after the swarming 
season, the drones are driven from the hive. They are 
not stung to death as is commonly reported. The first 
indication of the exodus of the drones is that numbers of 
them are seen on the bottom board or around the entrance. 
There is some evidence that before removal the drones 
are starved, they normally being fed by the workers and 
not taking food directly from the stores. Then the worker 
bees drag them out one by one and fly away, dropping 
them some distance from the hive. This driving out of 
the drones is more marked in the northern regions where 
the main' honey-flow usually ceases abruptly. If a colony 
is queenless the drones may be retained, some of them often 
living into the winter and, even in normal colonies, a few 
drones are sometimes retained for a time. The cause of 
the driving out of the drones in most cases and their reten- 
tion under some conditions is so far not satisfactorily ex- 
plained. 

THE END OF BROOD-REARING 

Where winter occurs brood-rearing ceases in the autumn, 
while in the tropics brood is reared constantly, unless it is 
discontinued by a dearth. Cessation of brood-rearing is 
therefore not a necessary occurrence in the annual cycle. 
It was shown earlier that the reduction in egg-laying begins 
with the cutting off of the nectar-flow. When the days 
become cold, brood is no longer reared and finally the last 
of the brood emerges leaving the colony without brood for 
most of the winter, provided it remains normal. The last 
eggs laid may be removed by the workers before they hatch, 
or larvae and pupae may be carried out. 

In seeking an explanation of the stoppage in brood-rearing, 
one becomes involved in some difficulties. In the first place, 
various races of bees differ in regard to the amount and 
continuance of brood-rearing in the autumn. Italian bees 



The Cycle oj the Year 87 

decrease the amount of brood when the honey-flow stops 
while Carniolan and Caucasian bees rear more brood "out 
of season/' or after the honey-flow. But all races rear 
some brood "out of season," so that the final discontinuance 
of brood-rearing cannot be considered as due to lack of 
incoming nectar or pollen. Even among colonies of the 
same race there is considerable variation in a single apiary. 
Of course, no colony can rear brood without food for the 
young larvae. The stoppage of brood-rearing is sometimes 
attributed to low outside temperature but, as stated earlier, 
brood is sometimes reared in the coldest months, in fact 
it is usually begun then in colonies wintered out of doors. 
As will appear later, the cold outside during January is 
the cause of a higher temperature within the cluster than 
is usual in the autumn and, combined with the effects of 
the accumulation of feces, is the cause of higher cluster 
temperature than occurs with the same intensity of cold 
in December. Furthermore, when a colony begins brood- 
rearing in the winter, the presence of brood seems to induce 
the production of sufficient heat to care for it, the resulting 
temperature being sufficient to induce more egg-laying, so 
that brood-rearing once begun continues through the re- 
mainder of the winter. Since a moderately low outer tem- 
perature may cause more active heat production in a small 
colony than in a strong one, this may explain some of the 
variation observed in the time that brood-rearing ceases. 
A small colony may have a higher cluster temperature than 
a strong colony, the greater activity in the center of the 
cluster being necessary to produce the required temperature 
in the shell of the cluster, which is a less efficient insulator 
in a weak colony. The structure of the cluster is described 
in the following section. If an explanation for the cessation 
of brood-rearing is sought, the paradoxical conclusion is 
reached that in the fall (1) the outside temperature is not 
high enough for brood-rearing without artificial heat pro- 
duction and (2) it is not low enough to cause the bees to 
produce sufficient cluster heat for brood-rearing. Egg- 



88 Beekeeping 

laying and brood-rearing may seemingly be stimulated 
either by a high or very low outside temperature. 

THE WINTER CLUSTER 

There are three possible ways by which an animal can 
survive a protracted period of adversity like a northern 
winter, when food is not available in the field and when it 
could not get food even if it were present, because of the 
cold. The first method is hibernation, in which the only 
storage of food is within the animal, and at low temperatures 
the vital functions apparently cease. This is the universal 
mode of wintering among solitary insects and, even among 
the social species, in bumblebees and wasps, the majority 
of the colony die off while the fertile queens hibernate like 
solitary insects. Ants hibernate in a mass during extreme 
cold weather. Another method is migration, but this is 
not open to most insects because of their size and inability 
to fly long distances, as do birds. If a cold-blooded animal 
cannot hibernate, as the honeybee apparently cannot, nor 
migrate, there is but one course open to it. This is to lay 
up a store of heat-producing food and, when the surround- 
ing temperature falls below that at which the animal can 
live, to generate heat, virtually to create a thermal environ- 
ment of its own. This remarkable procedure, in which 
the honeybee is unique among insects, is the one encountered 
in a study of bees in winter. Beekeepers have long known 
that the winter cluster is warm but they have perhaps failed 
to comprehend the marvel of an insect which can use this 
method of overcoming adverse conditions. 

The hoarding instinct, the instinct to store food in great 
excess of the immediate needs, now becomes of vital im- 
portance to the continuance of the species, but it would 
serve no useful purpose in the winter season if the bees in a 
colony did not also have the ability to generate and con- 
serve heat. As will be seen later, the generation of heat 
is by a method common to all insects and other cold-blooded 



The Cycle of the Year 89 

animals while the conservation of heat depends chiefly on 
the structure of the winter cluster. 

When the last brood has emerged, the colony and its 
nest are then in condition to pass the winter. In cold 
weather the bees form a single compact cluster and leave 
the hive only on occasional warm days for cleansing flights. 
Bees do not discharge their feces in the hive so long as they 
are in normal, healthy condition but* after even a short 
confinement, will venture out for this purpose as soon as 
the outside temperature permits. 1 

Movements in winter. 

The cluster is first normally formed where the last brood 
emerged ; here the bees find empty cells into which to 
crawl, so that they form themselves into a compact mass, 
separated only by thin walls of wax. They do not form 
the winter cluster where the combs are filled with honey 
and it would probably be impossible for them to conserve 
the heat of the cluster if sheets of honey separated the bees 
in adjacent spaces. As the contiguous stores are consumed 
and additional cells are emptied, the cluster is shifted so 
that the bees are always near stores. This shifting is, how- 
ever, apparently impossible in extreme cold weather, when 
colonies sometimes die in a way that can be explained only 
as due to starvation through inability to reach stores just 
a few inches distant. The early fall cluster is usually low 
on the combs, near the entrance, if there is considerable 
honey stored and the movement of the cluster is usually 
upward and toward the rear of the hive as winter progresses, 
and as stores are consumed. If a colony is in a two-story 
hive, the cluster is often in the upper story in the spring. 

Responses to outside temperature. 

The cluster varies in size with the outside temperature. 
After the emergence of the last brood in the fall, if the 

1 Bees often remain in the hive at a temperature of 70° F. if a flight is 
not necessary, but will often fly when the temperature is about 50° F. if 
they have been confined for a time. 



90 Beekeeping 

temperature is about 60° F., the bees do not cluster com- 
pactly and do not fly from the hive, even on bright days, 
but remain inactive on the combs. In this condition they 
are less active than at any other time in the cycle of the 
colony and approach most nearly to a condition of hiberna- 
tion. During the warmer days there is no need of a tight 
cluster, for the function of the cluster is the conservation of 
the heat generated within. When the temperature is suffi- 
ciently high the bees generate no heat but, whenever the 
temperature of the air immediately surrounding the bees 
drops below 57° F. (the lowest temperature which normal 
bees ever experience in the hive), they form a definite cluster. 
As the outside temperature continues to fall, the cluster 
becomes more and more compact and the temperature of 
the inside of the cluster increases rapidly. After the genera- 
tion of heat is begun, the temperature within the cluster 
soon reaches a point higher than that reached before heat 
generation was necessary. Within certain limits, the tem- 
perature of the cluster increases as the outside temperature 
drops and, as the outer temperature again rises, heat gen- 
eration is reduced or discontinued while the temperature of 
the cluster drifts to meet the rising outside temperature. 
Heat generation is renewed if the outer temperature again 
drops, even though the temperature of the cluster and that 
of the outer air have not yet been equalized. This pro- 
duces a peculiar inverse relationship between the outer 
and cluster temperatures. It is of particular practical 
importance that, within certain definite limits, the bees are 
not compelled to produce heat. 

Conservation of heat. 

The cluster consists of a hollow sphere of bees several 
layers thick, those between the combs with their thoraces 
in contact and abdomens extending outward. The cells 
within the cluster are also filled with bees. The hair on 
the thorax assists in making this living shell an excellent 
non-conductor of heat, so effective in fact that a point in- 



The Cycle of the Year 91 

side the cluster may sometimes be 100° F. warmer than a 
point a few inches away but outside the cluster. The 
number of inactive bees varies with the outer temperature, 
being larger at warmer temperatures when less heat produc- 
tion is required and smaller when more bees are engaged in 
activities involved in heat production. 

Source of heat. 

Within the hollow sphere are bees which move about 
freely, these being the ones most concerned in heat genera- 
tion. They produce heat by muscular activity, such as 
movements of the legs and abdomen, but perhaps most 
effectually by vigorous fanning. The bees which form the 
shell constantly shift their positions and exchange places 
with bees from within. A bee from the center forces its 
way head first through the shell, then turns around and 
remains for a time on the outside layer. The shifting seems 
to be more rapid in cold weather than in mild. 

Effect of accumulation of feces. 

During the winter, the bees consume the honey stored dur- 
ing the summer. The undigested portion, which forms 
excreta, is retained in the rectal ampulla (hind-intestine) 
until the bees have opportunity for flight, for normally no 
feces are deposited by the workers within the hive. Dur- 
ing the cold winters of the North there are times when 
bees cannot fly for several weeks and the generation of heat 
during such a period of cold weather requires increased 
consumption of food and causes an increase in the amount 
of feces. The presence of feces, on the other hand, causes 
the bees to become restless, to generate still more heat (see 
Fig. 145) and to accumulate still more feces. Apparently 
a colony in winter confinement is in the confines of a vicious 
circle and the successful wintering depends preeminently 
on good food. If, however, the colony is so placed that 
little or no heat must be produced, the situation is relieved 
and this the beekeeper accomplishes by placing colonies 



92 Beekeeping 

in the cellar, provided conditions within the cellar are 
correct. 

Bees wintering in the open fly out whenever the outside 
temperature will permit, and after a considerable period of 
confinement many will fly out when it is so cold that they 
are unable to return. On these winter flights the feces 
are voided, consequently they are of the highest value to a 
colony wintered out of doors. 

While numerous other points concerning the activities 
of bees in winter are left to be discussed in the chapter on 
wintering, it is evident from what has been said that bees 
are highly sensitive to changes in temperature, and that 
they have a wonderful ability to overcome the adverse 
conditions of winter by the generation of heat. It is to be 
noticed especially that they usually do not warm the whole 
hive or cavity but confine heat production to the cluster. 
It might therefore be concluded that a hive is actually little 
protection for them in winter but it should be remembered 
that this protects them from wind, rain and snow. They 
further seal the hive with propolis to make the top water- 
and even air-tight and some races contract the entrance 
with propolis. The practical bearing of these facts forms 
one of the most vital problems of the northern beekeeper 
and the discussion of this subject from the standpoint of 
practice forms a later chapter. 



CHAPTER V 

THE LIFE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN RELATION 
TO THE COLONY 

In the preceding chapter the activities of the colony are 
discussed, much as if the colony were an individual or unit. 
While this is a true picture of one side of the life of the species, 
it is not complete, for the individuals not only carry on their 
own life processes but pass through individual cycles. A 
knowledge of the interrelationships of the individuals within 
the colony is important for an understanding of the colony 
organization, for this complex society is based on a division 
of the labors of the hive, which is of the highest interest and 
of the greatest practical value to the beekeeper. While 
in this book there is no attempt at a complete discussion of 
the anatomy or development of the bee, it is necessary that 
these subjects receive some attention to outline correctly 
the little that is known concerning the physiology of the 
species. The discussion of physiology is reserved for another 
chapter. 

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES 

This subject is one of mystery to the beekeeper. While 
the development of the bee in the egg has been investigated 
by several observers, 1 the papers on the subject are not 

1 Butschli, O., 1870. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene. Zeit. 
f. wiss. Zool., XX. 

Kowalevski, A., 1871. Embryologische Studien an Wurmern und Arthro- 
poden. M6ni. acad. imper. sci. St. Petersbourg, (7) XVI, 12, pp. 1-70. 

Grassi, Battista, 1882-84. Studi sugli artropodi. Intorno alio sviluppo 

93 



94 Beekeeping 

readily accessible to beekeepers, and writers of books on 
beekeeping have not given to this subject as careful consider- 
ation as to the anatomy of the adult bee. The changes 
taking place during metamorphosis (pupa stage) are so 
wonderfully complex that an account of the transformation 
of the larva into an adult bee is almost unbelievable. 1 Be- 
cause of the lack of attention given to the development of 
the bee in the literature on beekeeping, relatively more at- 
tention is here given it than to the anatomy of the adult bee. 

Cellular structure of tissues. 

To form a correct understanding of the development of 
the bee or of the structure of the adult, one must know some- 
thing of the units of which the tissues are formed, called 
cells. This word, as used by the biologist, has a special 
significance, being applied to a type of structure which makes 
up the tissues of all plants and animals. This unit of struc- 
ture is usually microscopic and a single organ of the bee 
may contain many thousands of them. The cell consists 
of a minute mass of protoplasm (living substance) contain- 
ing a nucleus 2 (Fig. 50). Protoplasm is a complex organic 
substance characterized by life ; the nucleus is a differenti- 

dell Api nell' uovo. Atti dell' Acad. Gioenia di scienze nat. in Catania, 
Ser. 3, XVIII, pp. 145-222. 

Dickel, O., 1904. Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien am Bienenei. 
Leipzig : Engelmann. ■ 

The work of Carriere u. Burger (1898, Entwicklungsgeschichte der 
Mauerbiene. Abhdl. d?r kaiserl. Leop. Carol. Deutsch. Akad. der Naturf., 
LXIX, 2) on the mason bee, Calicodoma, is of value in a study of this sub- 
ject. The recent work of Dr. Jas. A. Nelson of the Bureau of Entomology 
(1915, The embryology of the honeybee. Princeton University Press) 
is the most complete on this subject and is the most thorough work on the 
development of any insect. It is the only discussion of the embryology of 
the bee in English and should be consulted by any one interested in this 
phase of the life of the bee. The author is indebted to Doctor Nelson for 
help in the preparation of this section. 

1 The metamorphosis of the bee is described in detail by Anglas, J., 
1900. Observations sur les metamorphoses internes de la guepe et de 
l'abeille. Ill pp. Lille: Danel. 

2 This word, like "cell," is one of various meanings. It is used by the 
beekeeper to designate a small colony. 



The Life of the Individual 



95 



ated portion of the protoplasm which is especially active 
during the division of cells and carries the special organs 
(chromosomes), instrumental as the bearers of hereditary 
characters. The nucleus and surrounding protoplasm are 
closely united in their functions and are incapable of sepa- 
rate existence. The nucleus is, in its resting condition, 
usually rounded in form, while the remaining protoplasm 
is of various shapes according to the special functions of the 
cell. Protoplasm is characterized by ability to take in 
nourishment, to grow, 
to give off waste, to 
divide and to move in 
response to stimuli, but 
in each organ the cells 
become specialized to 
do some one thing es- 
pecially well and they 
often lose some of the 
functions of primitive 
protoplasm. For exam- 
ple, a nerve cell loses its 
power of contractility 
but becomes specialized 
for transmitting nervous 
impulses, while a muscle 
cell has a marked power of contractility. A detailed discus- 
sion of the structure and function of the various parts of 
the cell in different tissues is, of course, impossible here, 1 
but these few suggestions are sufficient to indicate the ex- 
treme complexity of the organization of each tissue that 
goes to make up any organism, such as the bee. 

The egg. 

The egg, as it leaves the ovaries of the queen where it is 
formed, is essentially a single cell. The eggs of most ani- 

1 The interested reader is referred to Wilson, E. B., The cell in development 
and inheritance. New York : Macmillan, and to other works on cytology. 




Fig. 50. — Group of tissue cells from skin 
of young salamander. 



96 Beekeeping 

mals known to the layman require fertilization (a union with 
one of the reproductive cells of the male) before they can 
develop, but there are many cases in which this is not neces- 
sary and the development of the drone bee is of this char- 
acter. The eggs which develop into females are, however, 
fertilized. This difference has so important a bearing on 
practical beekeeping that a discussion of it is reserved for a 
future chapter. 

The egg of the bee is a small white cylindrical object 
about ^q of an inch long, somewhat larger at one end (future 
head end) and slightly curved. It is deposited on the base 
of the cell of the comb by the queen and is fastened in place 
by a secretion. The head end of the future larva is always 
formed away from the point of attachment. The egg is 
covered by chorion, a thin, tough membrane, the surface 
of which is ridged. These ridges are, however, quite minute 
and are not so conspicuous as most illustrations of bee eggs 
would indicate. In addition to the nucleus and surrounding 
protoplasm, the bee egg contains a relatively large amount 
of non-living stored food, yolk. The embryo is formed on 
the convex side of the curve of the egg, which becomes the 
ventral side of the larva. The fate of the various parts 
of the egg is therefore in a sense determined. Because of 
the presence of so much yolk, the early cells are not clearly 
marked off from one another. 

Early embryonic development. 

Development consists of the repeated division of the egg 
cell into numbers of united cells and of the rearrangement 
and differentiation of the resulting cells to form definite 
organs. As development proceeds, the cells become more 
and more specialized until the final adult condition is reached, 
and even in the adult, certain changes in some cells continue 
through the life of the individual. As cell division (or rather, 
in this case, nuclear division, for the protoplasm is continu- 
ous in the early stages) progresses, the nuclei move from 
the interior to the surface. During the second half of the 



The Life of the Individual 



97 



second day, a thickening appears on the convex side, and, 
on the anterior end (larger end) of the egg, the first indica- 
tions of the future appendages are soon visible (Fig. 51, a 
and b). These consist of the rudiments of the antennae 
(Ant) and mouth parts (mandible, Md and maxilla?, IMx, 
2Mx) on the head and of the three pairs of legs (1L, 2L, 3L) 
on the thorax. These rudiments are simply slightly rounded 
swellings which are at first smaller toward the posterior 
end of the egg, since development progresses from the an- 
terior end. The embryo shows at first no division into 



SUGl 



SluGI 





A b o 

Fig. 51. — Three stages in the development of the embryo. 



head, thorax and abdomen, but the fate of the various 
swellings must be determined by following them through. 
The rudiments of the stigmata (Sp, openings of the tracheal 
system) appear early and the first evidence of the silk glands 
(SlkGl) becomes visible about the same time just behind the 
second maxillae. The first external indication of the nerv- 
ous system is in two pairs of swellings (Br) on the upper 
side of the head. Even in this early stage, a number of 
important organs are already outlined. 



98 Beekeeping 

Later embryonic development. 

In a later stage (Fig. 51, c), the embryonic band on the 
ventral side of the egg has widened and in the next stage 
here illustrated (Fig. 51, d) the band completely envelops 
the egg. In the stage shown in Fig. 51, c the mouth (Mth) 
and anus (An) have appeared as pits. These continue to 
grow into the egg and ultimately join with certain cells on the 
interior to complete the alimentary canal. The portions 
formed by the two invaginations from the outside are the 
fore- and hind-intestine, while the part arising from the 
interior is the mid-intestine. The Malpighian tubes (MT), 
the excretory organs, arise as outgrowths from the anterior 
end of the hind-intestine. The pits (Sp) which are the rudi- 
ments of the spiracles, deepen and send branches forward, 
backward and downward to meet corresponding outgrowths 
from other pits, finally forming the tracheal trunks with 
their commissures and branches. The silk glands (SlkGl), 
which function only in the larva, project backward as long 
tubes. 

Segmentation. 

The most striking feature of the late embryo is the fact 
that it is constricted into a series of segments (metameres 
or somites) which are plainly recognized in the larva. These 
segments are characteristic of all insects and part of the 
metameres of the abdomen are still plainly marked off in 
the adult. From the fact that segmentation is recognizable 
in various parts of adult insects and is present in insect 
embryos, it is assumed that this form is characteristic of the 
primitive organism from which all insects have arisen. The 
typical appendages are arranged in pairs on the segments 
but in their later development these appendages are modified 
according to their fate. The stigmata and the ganglia of 
the nervous system are also arranged segmentally at first, 
but this primitive arrangement is later partially lost. The 
segmentation of various species studied does not wholly 
agree, but it is usually assumed that the first six or seven 



The Life of the Individual 99 

segments coalesce to form the adult head, the next three 
the typical insect thorax, and the remaining ones, usually 
twelve l in number, form the abdomen. The thorax of the 
adult bee is not typical, as will be explained later. 

Fate of parts of the embryo. 

Some of the head appendages of the embryo disappear 
early, being rudimentary organs. For example, the append- 
ages of the second segment become the antennae while those 
of the third disappear in insects, but in Crustacea (e.g. 
shrimps and lobsters) form the second antennae. Several 
of the segments of the primitive insect head are not recog- 
nizable in the bee. In the adult insect, these segments fuse 
completely and by growth of various parts are so distorted 
that an examination of the adult head does not suggest 
segmentation and, without a study of the developmental 
stages, this segmental origin would be unsuspected. 

The three thoracic segments are fused in the adult bee 
but, since the three pairs of legs arise from them, the seg- 
mental origin is. suggested. The wings, arise as secondary 
outgrowths or appendages, dorsal to the legs, from the two 
posterior thoracic segments and do not correspond with 
other appendages. In the adult bee, the first abdominal 
segment is also fused with the true thoracic segments to 
form the part known as the thorax, which therefore does 
not correspond exactly with the thorax of lower orders of 
insects. This fusion also occurs in most of the other Hy- 
menoptera. The remaining posterior segments form the 
abdomen of the adult but not all of the segments remain 
visible to the outside. In the adult worker and queen bee, 
the five posterior segments are turned in to form a pocket 
around the sting and anus. In the drone, only four segments 
are so turned in. 

The embryo, just before leaving the egg, shows no rudi- 
ments of antennae or legs, these temporarily disappearing. 

1 Two of these segments are obscure and in later stages there appear to 
be present only ten. 



100 



Beekeeping 



The nervous system is now well organized, consisting of the 
brain and a chain of ganglia arranged segmentally. The 
second maxillaB fuse to form the lower lip (Lb). 

Larval development. 

At the end of about three days of embryonic development, 
the embryo breaks the chorion and becomes a young larva. 
During the larval period the most striking feature is the 
enormous growth of the animal. The illustration on page 
40 (Fig. 35) shows an egg, a relatively young larva, a fully 

grown larva and a pupa 
drawn to the same scale 
and, when it is realized 
that the growth from 
the youngest larva to 
the fully grown larva 
takes place in a few 
days, the rapidity of 
growth is astonishing. 

It should be pointed 
out that the development 
of all insects is not simi- 
lar. In the grasshopper, 
for example, a young 
insect hatches from the egg which resembles the adult in 
most respects. Such a development is known as incomplete 
metamorphosis. In the higher orders of insects, there 
hatches from the egg a larva unlike the adult and usually 
more or less worm-like, which when fully fed undergoes a 
complete and relatively sudden change into the adult. This 
type of development is known as complete metamorphosis. 
The bee larva is an extremely simple organism, lacking 
legs, wings, antennae and eyes, and is unprotected by hairs 
or thick chitin. A longitudinal section through the larva 
(Fig. 52) shows that the largest organ is the stomach, as 
is necessary for excessive growth. Being protected from 
enemies and from adverse environmental conditions in the 




Fig. 52. — Diagram of a longitudinal me 
dian section of a bee larva. 



The Life of the Individual 101 

cells of the comb, the bee larva needs no protective covering 
and, being fed by the worker bees, 1 it does not need organs 
which will enable it to Svjek or even to detect food or to masti- 
cate solid food. It is ideally adapted to the protected condi- 
tion in which it is placed in the colony scheme and quickly 
perishes if removed and exposed to adverse conditions. 

Metamorphosis. 

After the excessive growth, the larva is sealed in the cell 
with a capping of wax (Fig. 39) and it then spins a delicate 
silken cocoon with the secretion of the silk glands (SlkGl) 
within the cell. Soon after this, all external motion ceases 
and the animal begins to undergo that wonderful series of 
changes known as metamorphosis. During the larval 
growth the mid-intestine and hind-intestine are not con- 
nected (Fig. 52) but this connection is made after sealing 
and the feces of the larva are then cast out. 

The organs which served the larva are of course not suit- 
able for the adult insect and the changes necessary to obtain 
suitable adult organs take place in the pupal stage. Anglas 
has described many of these changes but the metamorphosis 
of insects is so complex and so much disputed by various 
workers that it is to be hoped that the changes in the bee 
may be again investigated. The simple alimentary canal 
of the larva is discarded and a new one is formed in its place. 
The segmentally arranged muscles of the larva either dis- 
appear or are changed into those of the adult. The nervous 
system apparently loses some of the segmental ganglia by 
the fusion of various ganglion pairs. The antennae, eyes, 
legs and wings develop from rudiments which have remained 
undeveloped in the larva. Not only do the internal organs 
change and new structures appear but the animal changes 

1 The larva of the honeybee is fed frequently during the period of rapid 
growth. In bumblebees (Bombus) and stingless bees (Melipona and 
Trigona), a cell is filled with a mixture of pollen and nectar, after which 
the queen lays an egg on the mass. The cell is then sealed and the larva 
is not fed further during the developmental stages. 



102 Beekeeping 

its outward appearance. The small head of the larva grows 
to adult size, the thoracic segments and the first abdominal 
segment unite and undergo marked external changes to 
form the thorax of the adult. The abdomen changes least 
in external form but marked internal changes occur. This 
brief category of the vital modifications can give but a 
suggestion of the changes which the pupa undergoes. All 
of this occurs in an animal which externally seems lifeless, 
but the internal changes require such large expenditures 
of energy that the animal loses weight by the consumption 
of the food which the greedy larva stores up as fat in the fat 
body. 

The external changes of the pupa are interesting, even 
though of minor importance. The compound eyes first 
change from white to pink by the deposition of a pigment 
around the rhabdomes of the eye (p. 167) and later this pink 
pigment is gradually covered by a darker external pigment 
so that the eyes appear brown and then black. The thorax 
shows coloration earlier than the abdomen. Toward the 
close of the pupal period, the outside of the animal becomes 
covered over with a layer of hard chitin for the protection 
of the adult and to serve as a skeleton for the insertion of 
the muscles. The legs and wings originate as hollow bud- 
like outgrowths on the thorax and after the last moult of 
the larva these invaginations are suddenly extended by 
blood pressure. The wings are at first small thin sacs which 
grow and finally take on the adult form, after which the two 
sides of the sac fuse and the blood in the sac returns to the 
body cavity, leaving the wings as dry membranes. 



Length of developmental 

The length of the various stages of development varies 
among the different types in the hive. The preceding ac- 
count applies especially to worker bees, which have been 
most frequently investigated, probably because of the ease 
of obtaining material. The stages are essentially similar 
in queens and drones. While the rapidity of development 



The Life of the Individual 



103 



is slightly modified by changes in temperature of the hive, 
it is, in the main, quite uniform and it is therefore possible 
to give the time from egg-laying to emergence of the adult. 
It must be understood that these vary somewhat and it is 
rather remarkable that the variation is not more pronounced. 
On account of the variation the various tables given for the 
length of stages are not uniform. The following table (II) 
is a fair average : 

Table II. Developmental Stages 



Stage 


Queen 


Worker 


Drone 


Egg 

Larva .... 
Pupa 


3 

1\ 


3 

6 
12 


3 
14| 


Total . . . . 


16 


21 


24 



The figures given in this table for the pupal stage include 
all the time that the developing bee is sealed up in the cell. 
During part of this time, the larval stage is continued but 
no additional food is taken. This is followed by a semi- 
pupa stage, when the insect resembles a larva but has under- 
gone a moult and the hind- and mid-intestine are connected. 
The true pupa stage follows this and the transition to the 
adult is gradual, the separation between the two stages being 
marked by the emergence of the insect from the cell. The 
number of moults in the larval stage are sometimes given 
as probably six (Cheshire). This should be more carefully 
studied. 

The structure of the adult bee will be briefly discussed 
in conjunction with the functions of the various organs. 
When the young bee emerges from the cell it is structurally 
in the adult condition. It does not grow in size nor do any 
marked changes in most of the organs occur during adult 
life. This is true of all insects. While certain internal 



104 Beekeeping 

organs undergo change, these are not of a character to change 
the outside appearance. The food taken by the adult is 
not stored up within the body, as in the larva, but is taken 
for immediate use. 

THE CYCLE OF DUTIES OF THE ADULT WORKER BEE 

When the worker emerges from the cell, it is covered with 
a soft skin, the last pupal moult, which is quickly removed. 
For a day or two the young bee remains on the combs, fre- 
quently on the one from which it emerged, and moves about 
but little. Numbers of young bees are often seen in the 
upper part of the hive and especially in the supers. In a 
few days they begin the inside work 1 of the hive which 

1 An interesting opportunity for speculation is offered in attempting 
to determine the basis for the division of labor in worker bees according 
to age. In studying the structure of the compound eye, the author (Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Science, Philadelphia, Vol. LVII, pp. 123-157) was struck by 
the presence of enormous numbers of curved unbranched hairs which cover 
the eye of the young adult bee so completely that the facets are not visible. 
These hairs are broken off readily and in field bees most of the hairs have 
disappeared. It is probably impossible for the compound eyes to function 
while these hairs remain. These facts suggested the possibility that the 
young bees remain in the hive because they cannot see clearly enough to 
fly to the field and that when the hairs are lost the field work is begun. 
That the young bees are capable of flight is clearly shown by their ability 
to leave with a swarm. In this case, sight is probably not essential. In 
attempting to determine whether there is any ground for such a belief, 
numerous experiments were tried, by removing the hairs of young bees 
to see whether they were then more inclined to leave the bive. The hairs 
were scraped from some young workers and in other cases soft paraffin or 
beeswax and paraffin was applied to the eyes and then removed, the hairs 
breaking off with its removal. In every case the handling made the action 
of the bees abnormal, so that no conclusions of any value were obtained. 
That this is probably* the correct interpretation of the function of these 
hairs still lingers in the mind of the author, in spite of inability to obtain 
proof through experiments. 

It may be said in favor of this theory that it offers a structural basis 
for an instinct which is otherwise unexplained. The attribution of an 
action to "instinct" is a lazy way of explaining phenomena. Merely to 
classify an action and group it with others, to which a class name is given, 
does not throw any light on the behavior. When an action is attributed 
to "instinct" the study of the behavior often suffers a loss rather than 
gain, for the giving of a name, to some minds, constitutes an explanation. 
There is reason for the belief that instincts all have a physical basis, some 



The Life of the Individual 105 

consists of feeding and caring for the larvae, feeding the 
queen and the drones, cleaning, ventilating, comb building 
when necessary, guarding the hive from intruders and other 
work inside the hive. 1 

When about a week old, 2 on bright days, the young bees 
take "play flights" in front of the hive. Suddenly, as if in 
response to a signal, the young bees fly out, circle about the 
hive, usually with their heads toward the entrance, and as 
a rule they do not at first venture more than a few feet away. 
In a short time this flight is over arid the young bees return 
to the hive. This flight of young bees is often mistaken by 
beginners in beekeeping for the attack of robber bees but 
the action in the two cases is so different that close obser- 
vation soon makes the dissimilarity clear. When robbers 
are numerous, they dart toward the hive and alight about 
every crack, while young bees circle about, rarely alighting 
on the hive. The flight of the young bees is also sometimes 
mistaken for the beginning of swarming. 

Later flights are more extended, and when workers are 
from 14 to 21 days old (if during a honey-flow), they begin 
their field duties of gathering nectar, pollen, propolis and 



peculiar physical structure which determines the action. This physical 
basis may be a specialization of some nervous element or of some other 
organ, but it probably always exists. In the case under discussion, it is 
not enough to state that the division of labor inside and outside the hive 
is instinctive and such a statement is largely an evasion of the problem 
which the facts observed present to us. 

1 In addition to the inside duties named, the young bees must sometimes 
serve as honey reservoirs during a heavy honey-flow. Especially in comb- 
honey production where the bees must be crowded to produce fancy honey, 
the comb built is often not sufficient to hold the nectar brought in and it is 
given to the young bees. They may be seen in the evening on the combs 
with abdomens distended, but usually before morning more comb is 
completed and the honey is deposited in cells. Possibly this may be part 
of the ripening process, which is poorly understood as yet. This function 
of young workers suggests the behavior of the honey ants, in which certain 
individuals serve as honey pots for the storage of honey until used. In 
this case the abdomen is abnormally distended. 

2 In giving age in days or weeks it must be understood that this is vari- 
able, depending on season and honey-flows. The determining factor in 
the aging of bees is work, not days (p. 126). 



106 Beekeeping 

water. Normally, they now abandon the work inside the 
hive. It sometimes happens that a colony will contain 
relatively too many young bees or too many old ones, these 
conditions often arising in practical manipulations. If 
there is a lack of young bees, the old ones act in their stead, 
but they secrete wax slowly (p. 108) and do not produce 
larval food adequately. If a colony is made up artificially 
of young bees, some of them begin field work earlier than 
normally. 

DIVISION OF LABOR 

From the preceding chapter, it is evident that there is a 
definite division among the different members of a colony. 
In a colony composed of perhaps 60,000 individuals, the. 
very existence of the bees depends on an orderly performance 
of the various duties, and the development of colonial life, 
therefore, rests on the evolution of some system for the 
division of labor. The organization of the colony, already 
described, shows one of the most marked cases of appor- 
tionment of work, for the egg-laying is normally performed 
by but one individual, the queen, while all the other females 
(workers) are so constituted that egg-laying is not normal 
and mating is impossible. The drones or males are so 
specialized in function that they are probably useful to the 
colony only in the mating of young queens. While the duty 
of egg-laying devolves on the queen, the care of the brood falls 
entirely to the workers. Since they must do work both 
inside and outside the hive, there arises the further neces- 
sity of a division 1 of these functions and this, as has been 
stated, is based on the age of the individuals. 

1 The division of labor is as highly developed among bees as in any 
insect community. Among certain species of ants, a greater diversity of 
structure accompanies the performance of certain duties. For example, 
there may be soldiers which serve only as protectors of the community 
and there may be two types of workers, differing structurally and in their 
duties. While structural differences do not occur in so marked a way, 
the members of the bee colony are fully as greatly specialized in their labor 
but the performance of specific duties is determined in some manner other 
than by structure. 



The Life of the Individual 107 

Since it may not at first glance be clear how the age at 
which bees perform certain functions is determined, it may 
be well to explain the simple method by which this is accom- 
plished. If the queen is removed from a colony of black 
(German) bees and a yellow (Italian) queen is at once in- 
troduced, for a period of twenty-one days after the removal 
of the old queen the young worker bees which emerge from 
the cells are black, since they are the progeny of the old 
queen. At the end of that time, however, the worker brood 
from the black queen has all emerged and yellow bees begin 
to appear. The time at which the yellow bees first perform 
certain functions may now be determined. This experi- 
ment may be variously modified, as by the removal of all 
the brood of the black queen at once or by the placing of 
a frame of brood from an Italian colony in a colony of black 
bees. The introduction of Italian bees into Germany and 
later into America has been an important factor in enabling 
investigators to learn many of the phenomena of the hive, 
for the use of bees of two colors 1 is often of the .highest 
importance. 

The labor within the hive. 

When the workers first emerge from the cells they take 
no part in the work of the hive for a day or two, nor do they 
leave the hive. The first flight in front of the hive is usually 
when they are about a week old, if the weather is favorable, 
and these flights are continued on warm bright days until 
they are nearly three weeks old. Although they do not go 
far at first they may remain on the wing for a considerable 
period. That these early flights are necessary in enabling 
the young bees to void their feces is indicated by the fact 
that if confined they become restless. 2 The abdomens of 
young bees are frequently distended with feces. 

1 Another method of marking bees for observation is mentioned by Cas- 
teel, Cir. No. 161, Bureau of Entomology, p. 5. The method employed 
was to paint bees with different colors and also to number them. 

2 This was observed when colonies containing young bees were placed 



108 



Beekeeping 



Donhoff 1 states that he offered a stick dipped in honey 
to young bees daily. Until they were fifteen days old they 
did not lick the honey eagerly. The younger bees never 
attempted to lick it, but as they grew older they paid more 
attention to it. He concludes that the " impulse for gather- 
ing honey" is not developed in young 
bees. Not until his experimental bees 
were seventeen days old did he find any on 
his outdoor feeders and not until they were 
nineteen days old did any fly to the field. 

Comb building. 

If there is need 
for more combs, the 
workers form cur- 
tains by hanging on 
one another from 
the top of the hive 
or cavity. The 
temperature is raised 
and in a few hours 
wax-scales may be 
seen on the ventral 
sides of the abdo- 
mens of the hang- 
ing bees. Finally, 
some of these scales 
are removed and manipulated and the bees begin building 
new comb. The small pieces of wax are put approximately 
in the right place and are then sculptured and molded into 





Fig. 53. — Ventral plates 
of the abdomen of a 
worker bee. 






Fig. 54. — Inner sur- 
face of the left 
hind leg of a 
worker bee, show- 
ing a wax-scale. 



in a cellar for winter, in connection with work of Demuth and the author 
on winter activities. The entire colony became active and a high tempera- 
ture was maintained. The condition was removed by taking the colonies 
from the cellar for a flight. Bees that emerged from brood combs were 
also kept in a warm room, away from older workers. These had distended 
abdomens and if one escaped from the hive it usually flew at once to the 
window, leaving a spot of feces on the pane. 

1 Donhoff, 1855. Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, p. 163. 



The Life of the Individual 



109 




Fig. 55. — Ventral view of worker re- 
moving wax-scale. Enlarged. 



their proper position and 

shape. In spite of the 

number of bees at work 

in building, the wax is 

quickly smoothed into its 

final form, becoming a 

part of the comb. 

Dreyling x has shown 

that in just emerged 

worker bees the cells of 

the wax glands are not 

fully developed and that 

as the worker grows older 

the cells elongate. As the 

bee ages, however, these 

cells decrease and degen- 
erate. These results fully support the observations of 

beekeepers that bees secrete wax best before they become 

field bees. If, however, a colony of old bees is required to 

build comb, the bees can 
still secrete some wax, but 
for some reason not under- 
stood they usually build 
irregularly. 

Beeswax is secreted in 
pockets on the ventral side 
of the abdomen on the wax 
plates (Fig. 53) situated 
on the sternal plates of the 
last four visible segments 
of the abdomen. Each 

Fig. 56. — Side view of worker removing segment bears two of these 

Enlarged. plates, making eight in all. 




wax-scale. 



1 Dreyling, L., 1903. Ueber die wachsbereitenden Organe der Honig- 
biene. Zool. Anz., XXVI. 

, 1905. Die wachsbereitenden Organe bei den gesellig lebenden 

Bienen. Zool. Jahrbucher, Abth. Anat. u. Ont. d. Theire, XXII. 



110 



Beekeeping 




As the secreted wax comes in contact with the air, it 
hardens, forming the scales of wax. 

The manipulation by 
the bees of the wax-scales 
has been carefully de- 
scribed by Casteel. 1 The 
scales are removed from 
the pockets by spines of 
the pollen comb (Fig. 54) 
on the first tarsal segment 
(planta) of the third pair 
of legs. The surface of 
the planta is passed over 
the ventral side of the ab- 
domen (Figs. 55 and 56) 
and after the scale is loos- 
ened the third leg- is bent 
forward (Figs. 57 and 58), 
thus passing the scale to the front pair of legs. It is then 
masticated by the mandibles, after which it is ready to put in 
place in the new comb. 
The various movements 
in manipulation are so 
well shown in Casteel's 
figures that further de- 
scription is unnecessary. 
It is clearly shown that 
the so-called wax-shears, 
which are described by 
so many authors as be- 
ing used to remove wax- 
scales, have in fact nothing to do with the wax manipu- 
lation. It is shown later that these are concerned in pollen 
gathering. 



Fig. 57. — Ventral view of worker pass 
ing wax-scale forward. Enlarged. 




Fig. 58. — Side view of worker passing 
wax-scale forward. Enlarged. 



1 Casteel, D. B., 1912. The manipulation of the wax scales of the 
honey bee. Cir. No. 161, Bureau of Entomology, 13 pp. 



The Life of the Individual 



111 



of larvce. 

The feeding of the larvae is one of the most ardently dis- 
puted questions in bee activity. The chief controversy 
arises over the source of the food, some authors claiming 
that it is a secretion of glands, while others maintain that it 
is regurgitated from the ventriculus. The heat of contro- 
versy seems to have hidden from view the fact that this 
can be determined only by investigation. An explanation 
of the two current views involves some study of the 
glands emptying into the alimentary canal and of the 
ventriculus. 

There are in the head 
of the worker bee, two 
systems of glands (Fig. 
59), the lateral pharyn- 
geal (supracerebral of 
Bordas, System No. 1 
of Cheshire) (1GI) and 
the salivary glands of 
the head (postcerebral 
of Bordas, System No. 
2 of Cheshire) (2GI), and 
in the thorax are found 
the salivary glands of 
the thorax (thoracic sal- 
ivary of Bordas, System No. 3 of Cheshire) (Fig. 60, 
SGI). The ducts of the two systems of salivary glands 
unite into one median tube which enters the base of 
the labium and opens upon the upper surface of the 
ligula. These glands are homologous with the salivary 
glands of other insects and presumably their secretions 
assist in digestion although their exact function is un- 
known. They are found in queens, drones and workers. 
The lateral pharyngeal glands (1GI) are absent in the drone 
and never more than rudimentary in the queen, and this 
leads to the conclusion that they function in some way which 
is especially useful to the worker. They are claimed by 




Fig. 59. — Median longitudinal section of 
head of worker, showing the glands 
{1GI and 2GI). 



112 



Beekeeping 



Schiemenz, 1 and after 
him by Cheshire, 2 to 
be the source of food 
given by the work- 
ers to the larvae of 
queens, drones and 
workers. It is 
claimed that the de- 
velopment of these 
glands is in propor- 
tion to the special- 
ization of the species 
in the feeding of the 
larvae ; in bumble- 
bees (Bombus) they 
are as well developed 
as in the honeybee. 
They are decreas- 
ingly smaller in Psi- 
thyrus, Andrena and 
Anthophora. Since 
the feeding of some 
of these species is 
entirely unlike that 
of the honeybee, this 
evolution perhaps 
proves too much for 
this theory. 

Schonfeld, 3 on the 
contrary, holds that 
the larval food arises in the ventriculus and not in these 




Fig. 60. — Alimentary canal of worker, show- 
ing glands, pharynx (Phy), oesophagus {(E), 
honey-stomach (HS), pro ventriculus (Pvent), 
ventriculus (Vent), intestine (SInt), rectal 
ampulla (Red) and Malpighian tubules 
(Mai). 



1 Schiemenz, Paulus, 1883. Ueber des Herkommen des Futtersaftes 
und die Speicheldrtisen der Bienen, nebst einem Anhange uber das Reichor- 
gan. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XXXVIII, pp. 71-135. 

2 Cheshire, 1886. Bees and beekeeping. 2 vols., London: L. Upcott 
Gill. 

3 Schonfeld, 1886. Die physiologische Bedeutung des Magenmundes 
der Honigbiene. Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol. Abth., pp. 451-458. 



The Life of the Individual 



113 



glands. Cook l and Cowan 2 both adhere to this view. The 
alimentary canal of the worker (Fig. 60), posterior to the 
pharynx, narrows to a slender oesophagus ((E) extending 
through the thorax. In the abdomen, this is enlarged into 
a thin-walled sac known in the honeybee as the honey- 
stomach (HS, crop of other insects), since it is used to 
carry nectar to the hive. At the 
posterior end this merges with the 
proventriculus, with heavy muscular 
walls, which contains a valvular ap- 
paratus (Fig. 61). Behind this is 
the stomach or ventriculus (Vent). 
Schonfeld claims that the brood 
food, especially that of the queen 
(royal jelly), is regurgitated from 
the ventriculus. The experiments 
of Schonfeld seem to show that 
the valve in the proventriculus opens 
and moves anteriorly even to the 
oesophagus when this is done, but 
Snodgrass 3 claims that this cannot 
be done without tearing the mus- 
cles of the proventriculus. Cowan 
and other authors figure this action 
in a diagram, but with no evidence 
from observation. Schonfeld and 
Cook fed charcoal in honey and 

found this in the brood food which would, in their esti- 
mation, be impossible if the food is of glandular origin, but 
they overlooked the fact that the charcoal might get into 
the brood food from the mouth of the worker. The char- 
coal could not pass through the walls of the ventriculus in 




Fig. 61. — Longitudinal me- 
dian section of base of 
oesophagus. 



1 Cook, A. J., 1904. The beekeeper's guide or manual of the apiary. 
18th ed., Chicago. 

2 Cowan, T. W., 1904. The honey bee, 2d. ed., London. 

3 Snodgrass, R. L., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Tech. 
Series, 18, Bureau of Entomology, pp. 162. 



114 Beekeeping 

digestion. According to Petersen, the peritrophic membrane 
in the ventriculus is so formed as to make regurgitation 
from the ventriculus impossible. 

While the work of Schiemenz and Schonfeld must be 
given due consideration, we must wait until some competent 
investigator takes up this problem. The various arguments 
are thus summarized by Snodgrass (p. 100) : 

"i. The brood food itself is a milky-white, finely granu- 
lar, and gummy paste having a strong acid reaction said to 
be due to the presence of tartaric acid. 

"2. The pharyngeal glands of the head are developed in 
proportion to the social specialization of the various species 
of bees; they are always largest in those individuals that 
feed the brood, and they reach their highest development 
in the workers of the honey bee. From this it would seem 
that they are accessory to some special function of the 
worker. 

"3. The contents of the stomach in the workers consist 
of a dark brown, slimy, or mucilaginous substance in no 
way resembling the brood food, even when acidulated with 
tartaric acid. Pollen is present in varying quantity, mostly 
in the posterior end of the stomach, and shows little or 
no evidence of digestion. Since the brown food is highly 
nutritious, it must contain an abundance of nitrogenous 
food material, which is derived only from pollen in the bee's 
diet. Therefore it is not clear how the stomach contents 
can alone form brood food. 

"4. The constituents of the food given to the different 
larvae, at different stages in their growth, and to the adult 
queens and drones show a constant variation apparently 
regulated by the workers producing it. A variation of this 
sort cannot be explained if it is assumed that the brood food 
is produced by the glands alone. 

"5. Powdered charcoal fed to a hive of bees appears 
after a short time in the brood food in the cells, and this 
has been urged as proof that the latter is regurgitated ' chyle.' 
But it is certainly entirely possible that the charcoal found 



The Life of the Individual 



115 



in the food might have come only from the honey stomach 
or even from the oesophagus or mouth. 

"6. We have Schonf eld's word for the statement that a 
regurgitation of the stomach contents may be artificially 
induced by irritation of the honey stomach and ventriculus 
in a freshly dissected bee, but all explanations offered to 
show how this is mechanically possible in spite of the pro- 
ventricular valve are unsatisfactory when the actual ana- 
tomical structure is taken into consideration." 

Table III. Composition of Larval Foods. — v. Planta 





Queen 


Drones 


Workers 




Under 4 
Days 


Over 4 
Days 


Under 4 
Days 


Over 4 
Days 


Proteid . . . 
Fat .... 
Sugar .... 


45.15 
13.55 
20.39 


55.91 

11.90 

9.57 


31.67 

4.74 

38.49 


53.38 

8.38 

18.09 


27.87 

3.69 

44.93 



Composition of larval food. 

The chemical composition of the larval food has been in- 
vestigated by von Planta. 1 This larval food is obviously 
not merely a mixture of honey and pollen nor is the food given 
the various kinds of bees at different ages uniformly the 
same. The following is a brief summary of von Planta's 
conclusions : The three kinds of bees require different 
food and, in the drone and worker larvae, the food changes 
after the third day, being mixed with half-digested pollen 
grains and honey in the case of the drone and honey only in 
the case of the workers. 2 On the other hand the queen larva 
receives the^ rich food supplied the young larvae of other 

1 von Planta, Adolf, 1888. Ueber den Futtersaft der Bienen. Zeit. f. 
Phys. Chemie von Hoppe-Seyler, XII, pp. 327-354. 1889; idem, XIII, 
pp. 552-561. 

2 Pollen grains are found plentifully in the mid-intestine of the older 
worker larvae, so that in this respect at least the results of v. Planta's work 
must be questioned. 



116 Beekeeping 

castes throughout her entire larval period (called royal 
jelly) which is free from undigested pollen and completely 
predigested. The table (p. 115) gives the percentages of 
the various food constituents as determined by v. Planta. 

Snodgrass (p. 93) reports finding undigested pollen grains 
in royal jelly, contrary to the statements of v. Planta. The 
larval food differs essentially in appearance from the con- 
tents of the ventriculus so that it is difficult to conceive of 
it being a regurgitated product to which is added merely 
an acid secretion of the glands. The beekeeping industry 
is under lasting obligation to v. Planta for his research in 
this and other subjects, but it is no disrespect to his work 
to express the belief that this subject should be thoroughly 
investigated by modern methods. The methods of analysis 
have been greatly improved since his work was done; they 
have, in fact, been so completely changed that v. Planta's 
results cannot be considered as conclusive in any respect. 

Feeding of queens and drones. 

In addition to the feeding of the various types and ages 
of larvae, the workers feed the queen and seemingly the 
drones also during their presence in the colony. The exces- 
sive egg-laying of the queen (p. 57) obviously calls for 
nourishment in large quantities and during the season of 
heavy laying the queen usually stops for a few minutes 
about every half-hour and during this resting period she is 
almost constantly fed. While the feeding of the drones is 
less easily observed, there is reason to believe that the feed- 
ing is discontinued at the close of the honey-flow, at which 
time the drones are first driven to the lower parts of the hive 
and finally are easily carried out, because of their weakened 
condition. Both queens and drones are capable of taking 
honey from cells, but apparently do not take pollen themselves. 

Other inside work. 

Little remains to be said in detail of the inside work of 
the hive which is performed by the workers. They clean 



The Life of the Individual 117 

the hive, and in case they are unable to remove the debris, 
they may cover it with propolis. Lizards (Fig. 62), small 
snakes and other intruders to the hive, which are too large 
for the workers to remove, are sometimes found as "mum- 
mies" on the hive bottom, sealed in propolis. The ventila- 
tion of the hive is accomplished by fanning of the wings. 
The colony exhibits an astonishing degree of efficiency in 
its ability to protect itself and the brood from excessively 
high inside temperatures by rapid ventilation through a rel- 
atively small opening at the entrance. 




Lizard incased in propolis. 



The guarding of the colony from intruders is interesting and 
of great importance to the colony. This is done by bees 
which stand about the entrance and on the lower edges of 
the combs of the brood chamber. These bees usually do 
not remain long at this work for the guards are constantly 
changing. The hand may be placed right among them if 
the movement is slow, while a swift movement will cause 
them to dart out and will bring others to the entrance. 
The honeybee is capable of preventing the entrance of in- 
sects larger and more powerful than itself, such as wasps 
and bumblebees. During the summer of 1909, small yellow- 
jackets were especially abundant in the apiary of the De- 
partment of Agriculture, then at College Park, Maryland, 
and many dead ones were found daily in front of the 
hives. Numerous large wasps with hard chitinous covering 
are also killed by the bees. The bee-moth in some way 
often succeeds in entering the hive but usually the eggs or 
larvae are removed before any harm is done. Their success 
probably depends upon their habit of flying by night. 



118 Beekeeping 

- Of all these labors which the workers perform within the 
hive, none of them monopolizes the time of certain individuals 
as completely as does comb building, in which the bees hang 
in curtains from the comb support. Casteel has shown that 
even in this the bees change their duties frequently. Bees 
are constantly changing from guards to feeders of the brood 
or from ventilators to cleaners, and yet the work of the hive 
is done well and, one is almost tempted to say, systematically. 

The labor outside the hive. 

While the division of the inside duties may be explained 
to a certain degree, the division of the outside work presents 
problems of far greater perplexity, chiefly because of 
difficulty of observation. That there is an order to this 
work is an inevitable conclusion, but how this order is brought 
about among the thousands of field workers is not easily 
determined. Bees go to the field to obtain nectar, pollen, 
water and propolis. If there were no " system," we should ex- 
pect to find colonies lacking one or more of these substances 
in sufficient quantity or, perchance, a colony with the 
brood nest choked with pollen or a hive over-propolized. 
There are, in fact, variations in all these things, but there 
are no cases which can be considered abnormal. Further- 
more, on the grounds of an apiary of 200 colonies may be 
found heads of white clover or other nectar-secreting flowers 
right at hand. The bees in any case are not falling over 
each other to reach a certain flower and leaving other flowers 
untouched, as would be the case sometimes if bees were 
guided to nectar merely by the chance sight of a flower. 
Or, assuming only that there is a system whereby the indi- 
vidual colony divides up the surrounding territory, there 
would be cases of conflict between bees from the various 
colonies in their attempts to reach the same flowers. If 
then we dare to assume a pre-arranged plan, it must include 
the entire apiary and even more, all the apiaries within the 
range of flight. While bees get nectar from the flowers 
right beside the hive, they are no more numerous on 



The Life of the Individual 119 

such flowers than on other flowers a quarter or half mile 
away. 

On one occasion, the author watched a head of white 
clover within two feet of a hive entrance. This flower was 
without a visitor for so long that it was almost concluded 
that there must be no nectar in it. All this time hundreds 
of bees were flying to and from the hive, many of them pass- 
ing within six inches of the flower. Finally, a bee flew from 
the entrance directly to this flower and worked for a con- 
siderable time, sucking nectar, and, evidently getting a 
sufficient quantity after a time, it returned to the hive. That 
there was considerable nectar present in this flower is shown 
by the fact that other visits were made to this flower within 
the next half-hour from the same hive. At no time, in an 
hour's observation, were two bees on the head at once. 

Furthermore, when a bee flies from the hive, the flight 
is usually not uncertain but is directed toward a source of 
supply. It is usually stated that bees carry either nectar 
or pollen back to the hive but not both, but this is not cor- 
rect. It may perhaps be stated that they usually gather 
from one species only on any given trip. 1 Some additional 

1 This feature is of the highest importance in a consideration of the 
value of the bee in the cross-pollination of plants. Since the trips are 
usually confined to one species, the beneficial results are increased many 
fold, for if they wandered promiscuously from one to the other species 
they would thereby scatter pollen where it would be ineffectual. That 
they fail to discriminate among various varieties may be considered as 
not a misfortune since certain varieties are pollinated better with pollen 
from another variety. 

Bulman (1902, The constancy of the bee, Zoologist, Ser. 4, VI, pp. 
220-222) quotes from various authors to the effect that bees keep to one 
species on a single trip from the hive, and even "as long as they can, before 
going to another species" (Darwin, Fertilization of Plants, p. 415). This 
constancy is considered most highly developed in the honeybee but is 
claimed for certain Diptera (Bennett, Proc. Linn. Soc. Zool. XVII, p. 184). 
Ord (1897, The constancy of the bee, Trans, nat. hist. soc. Glasgow, n. s., 
V, Pt. 1, pp. 85-88) undertook to examine this as "one of the great pillars of 
the Law of Natural Selection" and finds that "only about 30% have 
proved inconstant while they were under my eye. ... In most cases 
when I was able to follow the bee for any considerable time, I found that, 
sooner or later, a change was made." He then records numerous observa- 
tions which show inconstancy in a marked degree as from Leguminosse to 



120 Beekeeping 

facts concerning the gathering of bees are of interest. If 
honey is exposed where it is accessible to bees, they go to it 
by the hundreds, if there is no nectar in the field, and under 
these circumstances they are on the lookout for openings 
in other hives so that they can rob. On the other hand, 
during a nectar-flow honey may sometimes be exposed in 
the apiary without a bee coming near it. 1 This leads some- 
times to the conclusion that bees prefer nectar to honey. 
Even if honey is placed in a feeder inside the hive, it is often 
not touched during a heavy nectar-flow. 

Division of labor in gathering. 

There has been little done on the division of labor outside 
the hive but Bonnier 2 has written a paper of great interest 
on this subject. Whether his conclusions may be accepted 
must depend upon future experiments, but a resume of his 
paper is of interest. The field bees are divided by him into 
two classes, searchers and collectors. Searchers fly to vari- 
ous plants, gathering some nectar and some pollen and light- 
ing on many neighboring objects, and behave much as do 
wasps, which are generally searchers. A bee is transformed 

Primulacese or Composite or from yellow flowers to pink, white or purple. 
He concludes that the majority of bees are constant, but if watched long 
enough they are by no means so, that "few bees appear to be able to with- 
stand the temptation of a Garden," where a variety of plants present them- 
selves, and that "the Hive-bee appeared to be fully as inconstant as the wild 
Humble-bees." Bulman gives records of 48 observations on honeybees 
in a garden which were inconstant. That bees go from white clover 
(Trifolium repens) to alsike clover (T. hybridum) or to two species of another 
genus which are perhaps less readily distinguishable to an untrained human 
eye should not excite wonder. All that can be claimed from the known 
facts concerning the so-called constancy of the honeybee is that if enough 
flowers of one kind are easily accessible, they seem to prefer those of one 
kind. They usually do not fly from dandelion to apple blossom, although 
Ord records one such case. No more than this is needed to make bees more 
beneficial to the fruit-grower than they would be if their visits were entirely 
promiscuous. 

1 Zander, Enoch, 1913. Das Geruchsvermogen der Bienen. Biol. 
Centralbl., XXXIII, pp. 711-716. 

2 Bonnier, Gaston, 1906. Sur la division du travail chez les abeilles. 
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'academie des sciences, 
CXLIII, pp. 941-946. 






The Life of the Individual 121 

from a searcher to a collector when a suitable source of 
nectar or pollen is discovered, and other bees come to the 
same source. During a good honey-flow, searchers are 
sent out only in the early morning and soon all become col- 
lectors (which may account for the lack of robbing and 
the indifference to honey about the apiary at such times) 
but during a dearth of nectar, searchers are out all day. 
Bonnier further claims that bees " commanded" to collect 
either nectar, water, pollen or propolis do not leave their 
work and will not stop even to collect honey placed in front 
of them. This claim is supported by experiments. The 
following translation of a portion of the paper cannot well 
be summarized : — 

". . . I shall cite the following which shows . . . how 
the division of labor among bees of the same hive is organized 
and so a sort of tacit understanding, which is manifested 
among bees of different hives. I detached six branches of 
flowers of Lycium, each having about the same number of 
open flowers. I put each branch in a bottle filled with water. 
On placing these bottles in the same place from which I 
had taken the branches, I saw that the workers continued 
to visit the flowers of the branches put in water just the 
same as those on branches not detached from the plant. 
This verified, I carried the six bottles containing the branches 
to the fruit garden, September first, away from all nectar- 
bearing plants, consequently to a new place for the bees. 
I remained constantly watching the six bottles containing 
Lycium branches. No bees came to visit the flowers on 
these branches. The next day I saw the first bee as a 
searcher, which discovered them. She inspected all the 
branches and took some nectar and pollen; I marked her 
on the back with talc colored red. In about three minutes 
she returned to the hive. 

"Five minutes afterward the same first bee (which I 
call 'A'), as shown by the red mark, came back with another 
and the two bees as collectors undertook a methodic visit 
to the branches, one to collect nectar and the other pollen. 
I call the second bee ' B ' and marked her white. 



122 Beekeeping 

"Ten minutes after, there were three visiting bees. A new 
one 'C/ which I marked green, came to join the other two 
from the same hive, as I verified. 

" Later the same three workers, A, B, C, A and C always 
collecting nectar, and B only pollen, came back regularly to 
the flowering branches and visited them in the same order. 
All the next day these same three bees, A, B, and C, visited 
the six branches. 

"I then asked myself why other bees of the same hive 
or of other hives did not come to collect from these branches, 
as well as the three bees. Remaining under the branches, 
I observed attentively what took place on the second day. 
Early in the morning and several times in the forenoon, once 
in the afternoon, other searchers came to the branches of 
the flowers and each of these searching bees did the same 
thing as A. She observed the collectors with great care, 
their number, their manner of work, and, after two to four 
minutes of inspection, she flew away and did not come back. 
It seems that these bees, finding the place occupied, and 
the number of collectors sufficient for the small amount to 
be collected went elsewhere to search. 

"The fact is that the day after, I saw more and the same 
bees, A, B, and C, continued to visit the six branches in 
the same manner, A and C always for nectar, and B for 
pollen. 

"Then I replaced the six flowering branches of Lycium 
with twelve branches which appeared to me about the same ; 
I saw two new recruits arrive, 'D' and 'E,' which I marked 
differently with colored powder; ten minutes after, two 
others, <F' and 'G/ and A, C, D, E, [F in the text, 
evidently a typographical error] and G came for nectar, 
B and F for pollen. There were seven bees visiting in place 
of three. The number of flowering branches was double, 
the number of collectors was about double. 1 

1 "Similar experiments have shown me that the number of bees visiting 
a definite number of flowers of the same species under similar environmental 
conditions is quite proportional to the number of flowers, except when 



The Life of the Individual 123 

"The next day other searchers came. The seven marked 
bees continued their visits. I took some pollen from the 
stamens of Lycium and put it in a mass below the nectar of 
one flower. When bee 'C arrived at that flower, she 
stretched out her proboscis as usual to suck up the sweet 
liquid but saw that it was not there and that something 
different was in the flower; she examined it carefully for 
more than a minute, did not collect the pollen but renounced 
it and went to pump nectar in the neighboring flowers. I 
made the inverse experiment and bathed the pollen of one 
flower in nectar; 'F,' after pollen, came to this flower, 
found the sweet liquid on the anthers, examined it, did not 
touch the anthers of that flower, but renounced it and went 
to continue her collecting on the neighboring flowers." 

Bonnier further found that certain bees confined their 
visits to a certain limited portion of a row of plants which 
were all in bloom. He concludes as follows: "They thus 
accomplish on the whole, the collection of the most in the 
least possible time of the substances necessary to all colonies 
of bees in the same region." 

If division of labor as described by Bonnier is even par- 
tially true, it may help us to understand why it happens 
that the flowers visited on a single trip are usually of one 
species. It is to be hoped that these interesting observations 
may be repeated by other investigators. 

Pollen gathering. 

Pollen is carried to the hive in the pollen baskets or cor- 
biculse (Fig. 63) situated on the outer surface of the tibiae of 
the third pair of legs. The activities of the bees in collect- 
ing pollen have been admirably described by Casteel. 1 In 
collecting from a flower, the worker not only secures pollen 
on its mandibles and tongue but also on the hairs of the legs 

the visit is disturbed by the arrival of wild Hymenoptera as numerous." 
— Bonnier. 

1 Casteel, D. B., 1912. The behavior of the honey bee in pollen collect- 
ing. Bui. No. 121, Bureau of Entomology, 36 pp. 



124 



Beekeeping 



and body, and this pollen must be transferred to the baskets 
and securely packed before returning to the hive. This is 
done either while resting on the flower or on the wing. The 
action of the pollen brushes on the legs is as follows : (1) 
those of the first pair of legs remove pollen grains from the 



-J}foa 



Corfocu/t 





Fig. 64. — Flying bee, showing movements of 
legs in pollen collecting. Enlarged. 



^-Planfa 



Fig. 63. — Outer surface 
of the left hind leg of 
a worker. 




Fig. 65. — Flying bee patting pollen on 
the pollen baskets. Enlarged. 



head and the region of the neck, and also take the moistened 
pollen from the mouth-parts (Fig. 64), (2) those of the second 
pair remove pollen from the thorax, especially from the 
ventral portion, and also receive the pollen collected by the 
front legs, (3) the third pair of legs collect pollen from the 



The Life of the Individual 



125 



-lemur 



Posterior 



abdomen and also receive on the 

pollen combs (Fig. 64) the pollen 

collected by the second pair of 

legs. The pollen is moistened by 

the addition of fluid substances 

which come from ^the mouth and 

Casteel presents analyses (by Dun- 
bar) showing that honey is used for 

this purpose. 

The method of loading pollen 

on the pollen baskets has been 

variously described, it usually being 

stated that it is put in place by the 

second pair of legs. This is not the 

usual method, however, although a 

little pollen is added to the mass 

while the bee pats down its load 

with the second pair of legs (Fig. 

65). The loading is accomplished 

by the rubbing together of the 

inner surfaces of the hind legs 

(Figs. 66 and 67). It is removed 

from the pollen combs by the pecten combs, is pushed 

upward by pressure of the auricles and is forced against 

the distal ends of the tibiae and on into the pollen 

baskets from 
below, being 
pushed upward 
against any pol- 
len that may 
have been 
loaded previ- 
ously. The long 
lateral hairs of 
the pollen bas- 
kets help to re- 
tain the pollen 




Fig. 66. — Inner surface of 
left hind leg of worker. 




Fig. 67. — Flying bee loading the pollen baskets. 



126 Beekeeping 

masses. It is thus clear that the so-called wax-shears, 
formed by the pecten and auricle, are part of the apparatus 
for pollen packing and, as shown earlier (p. 110), they have 
nothing to do with wax manipulation. Casteel shows also 
that in packing pollen in the cells of the combs additional 
moisture is probably used, for analyses show a higher per- 
centage of sugar than in pollen from the legs. 

Propolis collection. 

The collection of propolis has not been so adequately 
described. This substance consists of gums collected from 
various trees and other materials of a similar consistency. 
The bees carry it to the hive on the pollen baskets, the load 
sometimes appearing smooth and shiny, at other times 
rough, depending upon the material collected. It is usually 
gathered most abundantly in late summer and autumn, 
and races of bees differ in the amount of propolis which they 
collect. Caucasian bees are troublesome because of the 
great quantities which they deposit in the hive (p. 197). 
Inside the hive, propolis is deposited on rough surfaces, in 
cracks and openings that are smaller than a bee-space 
(p. 26) and sometimes on the upper portions of the combs. 
The " travel-stain " frequently seen on comb-honey is 
propolis. Heddon showed some years ago that bees do not 
deposit it on smooth surfaces. 

The collection of water is most commonly observed in 
early spring and during the hottest part of the summer, 
there probably being less need for water when the humidity 
within the hive is high. It is carried to the hive in the honey- 
stomach (Fig. 60), as is nectar. 

DURATION OF LIFE 

The length of life of the various members of the colony 
under different conditions presents a problem of great in- 
terest. The queen bee normally lives several years, while 



The Life of the Individual 127 

the workers, which develop from eggs identical with those 
from which queens develop, live from a few weeks in summer 
to possibly six months over winter in the North. 1 Drones 
usually live not to exceed four months, unless they are in 
queenless colonies, in which case they are sometimes reported 
to live over winter. Death comes suddenly to the drone at 
the time of mating, seemingly of shock. If a drone is caught 
on the wing during the time of mating and is slightly pressed, 
the male organs are ejected and the drone instantly dies. 
Obviously this death by shock does not concern us in a 
study of the normal term of life. 2 

The most interesting phases of this subject are the phe- 
nomena observed in worker bees. Those bees which emerge 
somewhat before the beginning of a heavy honey-flow, so 
that they begin their field duties when there is heavy work 
in gathering nectar, usually live only about six weeks, but 
if when the outside work begins there is no nectar available, 
the duration of life is much greater. Those workers which 
emerge at the end of the brood-rearing season are the ones 
which must live until the next spring if the colony is to sur- 
vive. It is obvious, therefore, that the length of life of the 
workers is influenced to a marked degree by the conditions 
under which they live. Similarly, queens live longer if 
they are called on to lay eggs less abundantly, and it is ob- 
served that in the tropics and semi-tropics, queens do not 
live as long as in the North, where the brood-rearing season 
is relatively short. 3 Further evidence of a similar nature is 
afforded by various facts observed in practical beekeeping. 
Some honey-flows seem to deplete the colony more than 

1 The method of determining the length of life of bees is identical with 
that of determining the duties of bees at different ages. 

2 Bumblebee drones do not die at mating time, according to a quota- 
tion given by Weismann, without the reference. 

3 It is difficult to draw any conclusions from the length of life of queen 
bees since they are superseded by the workers when they fail in egg-laying. 
Death is often not natural with them. It is interesting to note that al- 
though they can continue to form new eggs in the ovaries (in contrast to 
some female insects which lay but one or two lots of eggs) they gradually 
fail in this respect. 



128 Beekeeping. 

others ; if there is but little honey in the field the death rate 
often is greater than if there were no nectar available or 
than is the case when there is plenty of nectar. The work 
necessary to get the nectar costs more than the nectar is 
worth. Beekeepers often observe at the close of a severe 
winter what is known as "spring dwindling." This is, to 
the best of our knowledge, due to the fact that during cold 
weather the bees have had to work vigorously to generate 
heat and that, when the spring comes with its increased 
activities incident to brood-rearing, the bees are worn out 
and die rapidly. 

Work determines length of life. 

All of these facts and many others observed in the apiary 
indicate a peculiar condition found in bees which may be 
figuratively expressed in the following terms : a bee is born 
with a definite supply of energy and when this energy is 
exhausted the bee dies. It may be likened to a storage 
battery that continues to give out its stored energy until 
it is exhausted, but unlike the storage battery the bee seem- 
ingly cannot be " recharged." In our own experience, we 
find that after exhausting exercise, rest and food enable us 
to recover completely from the exhaustion, and we are prob- 
ably better for the exercise. It must not be concluded 
from what has been said that bees have no recuperative 
power, but it is obvious from the various facts observed 
that in some fundamental way their term of life is limited 
by the amount of work they do. 

Practical applications. 

Success in practical beekeeping rests in a recognition of 
this phenomenon of the wearing out of bees, but nowhere 
is this more evident than in wintering. In order that the 
bees may live over winter and still have energy to do the 
work required of them, under the trying conditions of spring, 
the bees should be kept under conditions which will require 
of them the minimum exertion. This the northern beekeeper 



The Life of the Individual 129 

attempts to do by keeping the bees in the cellar or by pack- 
ing the hives during the coldest months. As will be explained 
in the chapter on wintering, the character of the food is 
an important factor in the reduction of the necessary labor. 

Possible determining factors. 

The cause of the wearing out of bees is not fully under- 
stood, because there are so many phases of bee physiology 
about which we are ignorant. An old bee loses the hairs 
on the body and the wings often become frayed. These 
parts are not replaced, since in the adult they are non-living 
chitinous structures, but it can scarcely be believed that 
these factors are sufficient to cause the death of the insect. 
The fact that the larger number of bees die outside the hive 
during the active season perhaps lends weight to a belief 
that worn-out wings have failed to carry them back. How- 
ever, if bees are confined in a cage and are constantly stimu- 
lated, they wear themselves out and die, when wings could 
be of no help to them. Koschevnikov 1 has described the 
fat body of the bee and records that in old age the fat cells 
become less vacuolated and the cells are filled with a granu- 
lar plasma, while the cells become united into a syncytium, 
in which the cell boundaries are lost and the nuclei remain 
distinct. The cenocytes are rather mysterious cells, found 
in the fat bodies of insects. In the old bee, these become 
filled with yellow granules, which Koschevnikov thinks are 
excretory products which cannot be eliminated but are 
simply retained by the cells. These facts suggest the possi- 
bility that old age in a bee is due to lack of the excretory 
function of these cells, but far more evidence is necessary 
for adequate explanation. 

Some comparisons with other insects help to make clear 
the difficulty of the problem which confronts us in the 
phenomenon of old age in the bee. 2 Worker ants have been 

1 Koschevnikov, G. A., 1900. Ueber den Fettkorper und die (Enocyten 
der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera, L.) Zool. Anz., XXIII, pp. 337-353. 

2 For an interesting discussion of the duration of life, the reader is re- 

K 



130 Beekeeping 

kept for several years in artificial nests and Lubbock l 
reports keeping a queen ant of Formica fusca for nearly 
fifteen years, "by far the oldest insect on record." Queen 
bees live several years and it may be that if worker bees 
were equally well cared for and fed they might live as long 
as the queen. We get no light on the potential length of life 
of bumblebees and wasps because the colony is not main- 
tained over winter; possibly if they were protected as bees 
are or could hibernate like ants they might live for several 
years. It is perhaps not legitimate to compare the larval 
or pupal stages of insects which require several years for 
their development (e.g. Cicada, Lachnosterna). Among 
insects ants are perhaps the patriarchs, while most insects 
live but a few days, weeks or months. Many insects take 
little or no food as adults (e.g. females of Psychidse, Phry- 
ganids, males of Phylloxera) and it is therefore not surprising 
that they do not live long. If, now, we compare ants and 
bees, we find them similarly constructed, similarly they live 
in colonies and their activities are in many ways almost iden- 
tical. The marked differences are in the facts (1) that 
bees fly while ants do not and (2) that ants live on a mixed 
diet while bees in the adult stage live chiefly on sugars. 



ferred to Weismann's essay "The Duration of Life" (Dauer des Lebens) 
in his Essays on Heredity (English translation, 1891, Oxford). Prof. 
Weismann considers death an adaptation, as secondarily acquired, produced 
by natural selection, not a primary necessity of living matter and that 
"unlimited existence of individuals would be a luxury without any corre- 
sponding advantage" to the species. Death is a "beneficial occurrence," 
whereby worn-out individuals which are harmful to the species are re- 
moved, leaving room for those which are sound. According to this view, 
duration of life is hereditary (for which there is much evidence) and there- 
fore we should expect workers and queens to be potentially equal in dura- 
tion of life (I. c, p. 60), if the workers were as well protected as the queens. 
This is seemingly true for ants. However, it is difficult to comprehend 
the cause of an adaptation which leads to the use of food which fails to 
nourish the body and thereby shortens the term of life, since it is not evident 
in what way a shorter span of life for the workers is of benefit to the species. 
Beekeepers would probably be inclined to believe that if they could get 
worker bees which would live as long as do worker ants that it would be 
advantageous to the honey-producer, if not to the bees themselves. 
1 Lubbock, Sir John, Jr. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) XX, p. 133. 



The Life of the Individual 131 

Probably bees consume more pollen than beekeepers usually 
believe but their main source of nourishment is honey. 
Carbohydrates do not furnish the nourishment suitable 
for the rebuilding of worn-out tissues and this may be at 
least a partial explanation of the differences in the term 
of life. The queen is, however, fed on predigested food all 
her life and it is usually assumed that this is comparable 
to royal jelly. If this assumption is correct, her food pro- 
vides her with fats and proteids as well as sugars. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE LIFE PROCESSES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 

The discussion in previous chapters has had to do with 
the colony of bees and with the individual bees in their 
relation to the colony. To give a more complete account 
of the activities of the bees and to present a better con- 
ception of what manner of animal a bee is, it is necessary 
to discuss certain life processes of the adult individual. 
The entire form and structure of the body is so fundamentally 
different from that of man that it is difficult to form an ade- 
quate idea of the life activities. In this chapter mention of 
two important systems of organs is omitted, the nervous 
system with its sense organs and the reproductive organs, 
the structure and functions of these systems being so im- 
portant that a separate chapter is devoted to each one. 

To understand the life processes, it is obviously necessary 
to know the structure of the parts which function in the 
various activities. Fortunately the anatomy of the honey- 
bee has been carefully studied and described by Snodgrass. 1 
Previous to the appearance of this paper various books and 
papers on bee anatomy were published but unfortunately 
in many cases the descriptions were erroneous and the 
conclusions unjustified. 

In presenting the subject in the present case, it seems 
desirable not to discuss anatomy separately but rather to 
treat the bee as a living animal and to describe the functions 
of the various systems of organs, giving only the anatomical 

1 Snodgrass, R. E., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Tech. Ser. 
18, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agric., 162 pp., 57 ill. 

132 



The Life Processes of the Individual 133 

data necessary to elucidate the points discussed. This 
point of view is to be preferred as being of greater interest 
to persons who are not specialists in morphology and, after 
all is said, our chief interest in any animal lies in the fact 
that it lives and moves rather than that it has legs or a 
stomach of a certain structure and form. This view is 
emphasized by Snodgrass who also shows in numerous 
places our woeful lack of knowledge of the details of the 
physiology of the bee. Since anatomy is not treated fully in 
this book, the reader may find certain points not described 
sufficiently to meet his needs. In the illustrations used in 
this chapter, all of which are from Snodgrass, parts are 
shown which are not here described and symbols are used 
which are not explained. Partially to remedy these neces- 
sary shortcomings, the symbols used by Snodgrass are 
given in the Appendix (pp. 439-448). For fuller descrip- 
tions the reader is referred to his admirable bulletin. 

GENERAL PLAN OF THE BODY OF THE BEE 

The plan of organization of the bee is quite unlike that 
of the human body. The structure of the body as a whole 
and of the various organs is different from that with which 
we are most familiar and it is imperative that we avoid 
forming conclusions as to the functions of various organs 
from supposed homologies. First of all, there is no internal 
skeleton for the attachment of muscles and to serve as a 
support for the organs of the body, but the chitinous cover- 
ing serves as a skeleton. The body of the bee is divided 
into three portions, head, thorax and abdomen, the legs 
and wings being attached to the thorax. 

The three portions of the body differ greatly in function. 
The head is the seat of the brain and carries the two kinds 
of eyes (three simple eyes and two large compound eyes), 
and the antennae (feelers), which are covered with sense 
organs. It also carries the complex mouth parts. The 
thorax is chiefly concerned in locomotion, being almost 



134 



Beekeeping 



entirely occupied by large muscles for the movement of the 
wings. The abdomen contains the greater part of the 
alimentary canal, the reproductive organs and large air 
sacs. It will of course be understood that the functions 
of these three main parts are not confined to those named. 
The tracheal sacs extend into the thorax and head, the 
nervous system extends along the central side of the thorax 
and abdomen. 

Head. 

On the head are located numerous sense organs, the dis- 
cussion of which is reserved for a later chapter. Aside 



Vx T en 



PrbFs 



Ant 



Fig. 




gKjL & 



68. — Front (A) and back (B) views of head of worker bee with 
the mouth parts cut off near their bases. 



from these, the most interesting features are the complex 
mouth parts. The general appearance of the head of a 
worker bee (with all the hairs removed) is shown in the 
accompanying figure (Fig. 68, A and B). It is roughly 
triangular with the apex below, where the mouth parts 
are situated. The sides are rounded out by the compound 
eyes (E). From front to back, the head is flattened and 



The Life Processes of the Individual 



135 



is concave on the posterior surface to fit the rounded thorax. 
The three ocelli (0) in the worker are arranged in a triangle 
at the top of the head, the antennae {Ant) arise from the 
center of the face. On the posterior surface is the foramen 
magnum (For) through which pass nerves, 
oesophagus, dorsal blood vessel and tra- 
cheal tubes connecting the head and 
thorax. Below the foramen magnum is 
the fossa (PrbFs) where the proboscis 
is attached. 

The heads of the queen and the drone 
differ from that of the worker in size and 
shape (Fig. 69, A, B and C). The face 
of the queen (B) is more nearly round 
and is relatively wider. That of the 
drone (C) is larger and nearly circular, 
this being due to the unusual develop- 
ment of the compound eyes (E) which 
meet at the vertex of the head, crowd- 
ing the ocelli (0) to the front near the 
bases of the antennae. The head of the 
queen is smaller than that of the worker. 

The mandibles (Fig. 68, A, Md) or 
jaws, which are of special interest to the 
beekeeper, are situated on the sides of 
the mouth anterior to the base of the 
proboscis, being attached to the clypeus 
(Clp) and the postgena (Pge) by two 
articulations, so constructed that they 
serve only to crush or bite food and 
not to grind it. The mandibles of in- 
sects, when present, work sidewise and 
not up and down in a median plane, as do our jaws. The 
mandibles of the three types of bees differ in shape and size. 
Those of the worker (Fig. 70, A) are hollowed out and have 
smooth and rounded edges, while those of the drone (Fig. 70, 
B) and of the queen (Fig. 69, B) are pointed and notched. 




Fig. 69. — Anterior 
view of heads of 
worker (^4.), queen 
(B) and drone (C), 
with front, anten- 
nae and proboscis 
removed from each. 



136 



Beekeeping 



/ r '~Y 




The typical mandible of the 
Hymenoptera is like those of 
the queen and drone while the 
worker mandible is a specialized 
type. The fact that the worker 
mandible is smooth and rounded 
is often pointed out in connec- 
tion with the fact that worker 
bees cannot puncture fruit. It 
need scarcely be said that queens 
and drones never injure fruit. 
The mandibles are moved by 
two sets of muscles (Fig. 70, A, 
EMcl and RMcl) with their origin 
in the head. On each mandi- 
ble is the opening of a gland 
(IMdGl), located in the head 
(Fig. 69, A, B; Fig. 70, A, B), 
which is a large sac in the 

worker (Fig. 70, A) but is reduced in the drone (Fig. 70, 

B). In the queen (Fig. 69, B) it reaches its greatest size. 

It was originally described by 

Wolff l as a mucous gland which 

serves to keep the surface of the 

roof of the mouth moist, where 

he thought the olfactory organs 

are located. The function of 

this gland is not clear, but it is 

supposed by Arnhart 2 to func- 
tion in softening wax. This 

theory rests on the assumption 

made by Cheshire and others 



Fig. 70. — A, right mandible 
of worker with muscles and 
mandibular gland {IMdGl) 
attached ; B, corresponding 
view of mandible of drone 
with muscles cut off. 




2 MdGJ 



Fig. 71. — Internal mandibular 
gland {2MdGT) of worker. 



1 Wolff, O. J. B., 1875. Das Riechorgan der Biene. Nova Acta der Ksl. 
Leop.-Carol. Deutsch. Akad. der Naturf., XXXVIII, pp. 1-251. 

2 Arnhart, Ludwig, 1906. Anatomie und Physiologie der Honigbiene. 
In Alfonsus' "Allgemeines Lehrbuch der Bienenzucht," Wien. (99 pp., 
4 pis., 53 figs.). 



The Life Processes of the Individual 137 



,.ih\ 




Fig. 72. — Mouth parts of the worker: A, tip of glossa ; B, same from 
above ; C, small piece of glossal rod ; D, parts forming the proboscis, 
flattened out, ventral view ; E, cross-section of glossa ; F, end of 
mentum (Mt) and bases of ligula (Lg) and labial palpi (LbPlp) ; 
G, lateral view of proboscis, showing parts on left side ; H, lateral 
view of glossa with its rod detached. 

that the wax is changed chemically when it is manipulated 
by the mandibles. A second gland (Fig. 71, 2MdGl) is 
found in workers only on the inner wall of the postgena 
(Pge) with an opening at the base of the mandibles. 



138 Beekeeping 

The proboscis consists of the external mouth parts other 
than the mandibles (Fig. 68, Prb, Fig. 72, A-H). This 
group of organs serves in taking up liquid food. The name 
" tongue" is usually given to the slender median portion 
(Gls) but is loosely applied to the three median parts, the 
labrum. Snodgrass (i.e. pp. 44-45) explains the relation 
of these parts to the mouth parts of other insects and points 
out the true homologies, at the same time showing the 
errors into which various writers on bee anatomy have 
fallen. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 72, A-H) 
shows the structure of the organs of the proboscis. It 
will be seen (Fig. 72, D) that there are three terminal pieces, 
the central glossa (Gls) and two lateral labial palpi (LbPlp) 
arising from the mentum (Mt), a median basal sclerite, 
and two maxillae, arising from separate basal pieces, the 
stipes (St). These in turn articulate with the lorum (Lr), 
a flexible band connecting with the cardines (Cd) which 
attach the whole proboscis to the head at the fossa of the 
proboscis (PrbFs, Fig. 68, B), on which it is suspended. 

The maxillae (Mx) are articulated by the cardines (Cd) 
to the maxillary suspensoria on the side walls of the fossa 
while the mentum (Mt) articulates with the submentum 
(Smt) which is held in the lorum (Lr). These parts are 
suspended in the membrane in the fossa floor, giving great 
freedom of movement. 

The glossa (Gls) is covered with circles of hairs and the 
tip (labellum, Lbl) is spoon-shaped. The tip is protected by 
spiny hairs (Hr), formerly supposed to be taste organs, between 
which is the end of the ventral groove (k) of the glossa. 

When the proboscis is not in use the labium and maxillae 
are folded back against the mentum and stipes. When 
in use, these parts are unfolded and held together. In 
sucking liquid the base of the labium slides between the 
bases of the maxillae. To acquire this motion, the sub- 
mentum turns on the lorum and the mentum turns on 
its articulation with the submentum. This gives the men- 
tum a forward and backward movement and the labium 



The Life Processes of the Individual 139 

is pulled and pushed through the maxillae. This motion 

doubtless effects a pumping action, bringing the liquid 

through the temporary tube 

formed by the curling of the 

glossa. It is probably sucked 

farther by the pharynx. The 

glossa is also retracted into 

the mentum and this with its 

own contractility gives it great 

flexibility of movement. 

Thorax. 

As explained earlier (p. 99), 
the functional thorax of the 
bee (Figs. 73 and 74) con- 
sists of the three segments 
which form the thorax in 
other orders of insects and 
the segment which is the first 
abdominal segment of other 
orders. This modification is 
found in most other Hymen- 
optera l but the fact has seem- 
ingly escaped most writers on 
bees. The prothorax (1st 
thoracic segment) is reduced 
and the first pair of legs, 
arising from this segment, are 
loosely attached. The meso- 
thorax (2d thoracic segment) 
is specially well developed to 
accommodate the large mus- 
cles which propel the fore wings, while the metathorax (3d 
thoracic segment) is reduced, consisting only of a narrow 
plate (T3), the metatergum, and two lateral plates on 




Fig. 73. — Dorsal view of ventral 
walls' and internal skeleton of 
worker. Much enlarged. 



595. 



Snodgrass, R. E., 1909. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXVI, pp. 511- 



140 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 74. — Thorax of worker, showing 
propodium or first abdominal segment 
(IT). 



each side (pleural plates, 
PIS and pl3). The 
tergum (dorsal plate) 
of the first abdominal 
segment (IT) is fixed 
to the metathorax. The 
posterior portion of this 
segment (propodium or 
median segment) forms 
the peduncle (Pd) to 
which the functional 
abdomen is attached. 
The legs and wings are 
discussed under organs 
of locomotion (p. 154). 



Abdomen. 

The abdomen of the female bees (queens and workers) 
appears to consist of six segments (Fig. 75) but to this 
number must be added the modified abdominal segment 
on the thorax (IT). In 
the drones, there are ad- 
ditional segments par- 
tially visible externally. 
Snodgrass has figured 
(Fig. 76) the tip of the 
abdomen of the worker, 
showing that the eighth 
abdominal segment is in- 
vaginated and the eighth 
abdominal spiracle opens 
within the invagination. 

Zander l further claims that the quadrate plate (Qd) is a 
part of the ninth tergum. The anal opening (An) is in a 

1 Zander, Enoch, 1899. Beitrage zur Morphologie des Stachelapparates 
der Hymenopteren. Zeit. fur wiss. Zoologie, LXVII, pp. 288-333. 




Fig. 75. 



Lateral view of abdomen of 
worker. 



The Life Processes of the Individual 141 



tube (without chitin) which represents the tenth abdominal 
segment (X) so that the bee, like most other insects, has 
ten abdominal segments. In the drone, nine of these seg- 
ments are partially visible. The plates of the abdomen 
are easily movable, being connected by membranes so that 
the abdomen may be distended by food, or in the queen 
by the growth of the ovaries. In the typical segments 
(II-VII), there is a tergum (T) covering the dorsal and 
lateral surfaces, overlapping a sternum (S) or ventral piece. 
The spiracles (see p. 151) (Sp) are on the terga (see Figs. 
73 and 75). 

The eighth, ninth 
and tenth segments 
of the drone are not 
typical. The tergum 
of the eighth seg- 
ment (Fig. 93, D, 
VIIIT) is partly 
covered by that of 
the seventh and car- 
ries the most pos- 
terior of the spiracles 
(Sp). The sternum 
of this segment 

(VI I IS) is likewise concealed on the ventral side. The 
dorsal portion of the ninth segment is chitinized to but 
a small extent but the ventral portion (IXS) is chitin- 
ized and carries two pairs of clasping organs, used during 
copulation (lClsp and 2Clsp). The penis is extruded during 
mating between the clasping organs. 




Fig. 76. — Tip of abdomen of worker with left 
side removed, showing normal position of 
sting and anus. 



DIGESTION 



The workers take in food not only for their own nourish- 
ment but also that they may be able to provide food for 
the larvae. The queen eats frequently, especially during 
the period of active egg-laying, and a rapid metabolism 



142 Beekeeping 

must take place to permit her to produce the large number 
of eggs which she lays in the height of her activities. The 
larvae, as has been explained in the previous chapter, take 
enormous quantities of food, given them by the worker 
bees, permitting the rapid growth during the short period 
of larval development. 

The food of the various members of the colony all comes 
from nectar and pollen. The workers eat honey and pollen 
for their own nourishment but modify the raw materials 
before feeding the larvae. They also normally feed the 
queen and the drones, but the composition of the material 
furnished is not determined. That the raw materials may 
serve their purpose, they must be so modified that they 
may pass through the walls of the alimentary canal and 
then remain in a soluble condition in the blood until taken 
up by the tissues. To accomplish this, various digestive 
enzymes are needed. The source of these will be discussed 
later. 

The digestive processes of the bee are not thoroughly 
understood. The usual discussions, which are abundantly 
numerous in spite of our lack of knowledge, are too often 
confined to the drawing of analogies with human digestion. 
No such analogies are permissible and it is, for example, 
entirely unwarranted to apply the name "chyle stomach" 
to the ventriculus, because of a supposed homology with 
human intestinal digestion. The whole structure of the 
insect alimentary canal is different from that of man and it 
is, in fact, better not to apply names to any of the parts 
which are drawn from human anatomy. It is perhaps per- 
missible to use the terms mouth, oesophagus and anus for 
both insects and man, but to call the ventriculus the chyle 
stomach or the rectal ampulla the large intestine is mislead- 
ing. These parts do not seem to have homologous func- 
tions in man and bees. 

The structure of the alimentary canal has been well 
described by Snodgrass and by other workers and in so 
far as a knowledge of anatomy is helpful there is little room 



The Life Processes of the Individual 143 

for criticism. There have been, however, very few in- 
vestigations of the digestive processes. The digestion of 
insects is discussed by Biedermann, 1 and more recently 
Petersen 2 has published a discussion of the processes of 
digestion in the honeybee. This is the first good paper on 
this subject and the author is to be commended for taking 
a stand against the making of comparisons with human 
physiology. 

The mouth parts have already been described (p. 135), 
and those glands (1GI, Fig. 59) which are supposed to be 
concerned in the production of larval food have also been 
discussed (p. 111). Behind the mouth is an enlargement 
of the alimentary canal called the pharynx (Phy, Fig. 60), 
leading to a long narrow tube extending through the thorax, 
the oesophagus ((E). Behind the constriction between 
the thorax and abdomen, the alimentary canal widens to 
form the honey-stomach (HS), homologous to the crop of 
other insects. This is a thin-walled, muscular organ used 
by the worker in carrying nectar to the hive. Behind the 
honey-stomach is a valvular structure, the proventriculus 
(Pvent, the anterior part being often called the stomach- 
mouth) which separates the honey-stomach from the ven- 
triculus (often called the chyle stomach). The proven- 
triculus is of special interest in the bee, since when closed it 
prevents the nectar from mixing with the contents of the 
ventriculus and makes it possible for the honey-stomach to 
function as a carrying vessel. It is claimed by Schonfeld 
that the anterior end of the proventricular valve (nn, Fig. 
61) may be moved forward to touch the posterior end of 
the oesophagus, so that the contents of the ventriculus 
may be forced out as larval food. Snodgrass has shown 
that this cannot happen without tearing the muscles of the 



1 In Winterstein's Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie, vol. 2, 
Heft I. 

2 Petersen, Hans, 1912. Beitr&ge zur vergleichenden Physiologie der 
Verdauung. V. Die Verdauung der Honigbiene. Pfliigers' Arch, fur die 
gesammte Phys. d. Menschen u. d. Tiere, XLV, pp. 121-151. 



144 Beekeeping 

honey-stomach, and furthermore, as is shown later, the 
contents of the ventriculus could not escape were this con- 
tortion possible. Cheshire claims that the hooks (at nn, 
Fig. 61) of the pro ventriculus serve to separate the honey 
and pollen in the honey-stomach, but no proof is presented. 
The only known function of the proventriculus is that of 
opening to allow food to pass to the ventriculus. There 
is no evidence that it assists in the mastication of pollen. 

Behind the proventriculus is the ventriculus (Vent), a 
thick-walled organ, ringed by numerous constrictions. It 
consists (Fig. 77) of longitudinal and transverse muscles 
surrounding a much folded epithelium, the cells of which 
are supposed to produce some of the digestive enzymes. 
The inner depressions of this epithelium are filled with a 
gelatinous mass (pp) which extends into the lumen. The 
food contents of the ventriculus are surrounded by layers 
of membrane (peritrophic layers, Fig. 77, Pmb), formed 
from the gelatinous mass in the enveloping epithelium. 
The peritrophic layers are often described as chitinous but 
this, according to Petersen, is an error. These membranes 
do not seem capable of allowing the passage of the food con- 
tained in them to the ventriculus wall and probably little 
or no absorption of food occurs here. Furthermore, pollen 
is usually found at the posterior end undigested and, ac- 
cording to Snodgrass, it is not prepared for absorption 
until it reaches the rectal ampulla. Snodgrass observed 
in certain parts of the ventriculus wall a sloughing off of 
the ends of the epithelial cells (Em), presumably enzymes, 
which are seen in the gelatinous peritrophic mass. Petersen, 
in confirmation of this view, found that the peritrophic 
layers (which come from the peritrophic mass on the epithe- 
lium) are not chitinous but contain proteolytic ferments. 
The peritrophic layers and their attachment to the pro- 
ventricular valve effectually prevent the regurgitation 
of the contents of the ventriculus into the honey-stomach. 
The contents of the ventriculus does not at all resemble 
larval food. It therefore appears clear that the theory that 



The Life Processes of the Individual 145 



LMcl 



Epth 



Pmb 




Fig. 77. — Histological details of alimentary canal of worker: A, cross- 
section of ventriculus ; B, section of ventriculus wall ; C, section of 
Malpighian tubule ; D, cross-section of small intestine ; E, section of 
ventriculus wall, showing formation of enzyme cells ; F, section of 
anterior end of rectum, showing rectal glands (RGl) ; G, slightly 
oblique section of posterior end of ventriculus, showing openings of 
Malpighian tubules. 

larval food is regurgitated can no longer be considered as 
at all tenable. 

Behind the ventriculus, the alimentary canal narrows 
to form the small intestine (Fig. 60, SInt) and at the point 



146 Beekeeping 

where the ventriculus and small intestine join, the Mal- 
pighian tubes {Mai) empty into the alimentary canal. 
The small intestine is coiled and finally empties into the 
rectal ampulla {Red, rectum or large intestine). The inner 
epithelium of the rectum is thrown into six longitudinal 
folds, the so-called rectal glands (Fig. 77, RGl) of unknown 
function. It is usually believed that they increase the 
absorbing surface but, since they are covered on the inner 
surface with chitin, this explanation seems improbable. 
The rectal ampulla is capable of considerable expansion 
and normally retains the feces when bees are confined to 
the hive, as in winter. It is supposed that most of the 
absorption of food takes place in the hind-intestine. Peter- 
sen advances the fantastic theory that the rectal glands 
are the source of the hive odor. 

The food of bees which must be acted upon by the various 
digestive juices to be prepared for absorption have their 
origin in the nectar and pollen collected from flowers. The 
chief food is honey, which consists largely of invert sugar. 
This name is given to a mixture of two sugars, levulose and 
dextrose, which by various means can be made from sucrose 
(cane sugar). In the higher animals, these sugars are ca- 
pable of absorption without further change, and this is pre- 
sumably true of bees also. The sugar in nectar is probably 
sucrose with some invert sugar. The preparation of this 
material for absorption therefore begins with the ripening 
of nectar into honey. As explained earlier (p. 85), this is 
by the action of an enzyme and, according to Petersen, 
such an enzyme was extracted from the head of the bee by 
Erlenmeyer and by v. Planta, presumably from the salivary 
glands. The absorption of sugars probably occurs in the 
ventriculus and any water in the honey which is not needed 
is ejected. The process of such an ejection is not clear. 
It is also stated by Petersen that the bee produces a diastatic 
ferment by which the digestion of starch is possible, but he 
was never able to prove from experiments that starch is 
changed into dextrin, maltose or dextrose in the honey- 



The Life Processes of the Individual 147 

stomach. However, pollen contains no starch so that the 
breaking down of starch plays a small part in the digestion 
of the bee. 

The next important constituent of bee food is proteid, 
derived from pollen. Petersen shows the presence of pro- 
teolytic ferments in the salivary gland secretions and es- 
pecially claims that the layers of peritrophic membrane 
consist largely of such ferments. He also makes the in- 
teresting observation that the bee is incapable of digesting 
the proteid from pollen unless the grains are broken before 
they enter the ventriculus, any ones remaining unbroken 
simply passing out in the feces. It would therefore seem 
probable that the pollen is surrounded in the ventriculus 
with the peritrophic layers containing the ferments and is 
then passed on to the small intestine without being broken 
up or absorbed. The use of pollen is more in evidence 
during brood-rearing and it is usually assumed that the 
workers predigest this, or perhaps more correctly, secrete 
a mixture rich in protein for the use of the larvae. However, 
since the mid-intestine of the older larvae contain consider- 
able pollen, a large part of their proteid digestion is by their 
own proteolytic ferments. 

Pollen contains considerable oil but Petersen failed to find 
that any of it is digested by the bee, at any rate most of it 
passes through without being broken up or absorbed. 

The retention of feces by bees, so long as they stay in the 
hive, except when dysentery develops, is of importance 
in their management. The relation of this retention to 
the activities of bees in winter is discussed in a previous 
chapter (p. 91). Usually during the active season, when 
feces accumulate most rapidly, there are frequent opportu- 
nities for flight and the ejection of feces. 

For bees living only on honey or perhaps on a syrup of 
cane sugar, digestion is reduced to a minimum. It remains 
to be proved whether under such conditions the bees are 
fully nourished. That bees can live over winter without 
pollen is of course not proof that they do not need it then. 



148 Beekeeping 

While bees can convert sucrose (cane sugar) into levulose 
and dextrose and can digest maltose, they cannot digest 
certain other sugars. There is also considerable evidence 
that dextrine cannot be digested and that the presence in 
the food of unusual amounts of dextrine may produce the 
condition known as dysentery. It has also been found 
that certain proteids which have been used as substitutes 
for pollen cannot be digested. The alimentary canal of 
the bee, therefore, appears to be a highly specialized system, 
incapable of any considerable flexibility. Bees would evi- 
dently fail to be nourished by the mixed diets of many 
other species, which is additional argument against at- 
tempted homologies with human digestion. 

CIRCULATION 

When the products of digestion are absorbed and traverse 
the alimentary canal wall, they must be carried to the 
various tissues for assimilation. This is done by means 
of the blood. In the higher animals blood is normally 
confined in blood vessels which carry it throughout the 
body, but in the bee, as in other insects, the blood bathes 
the various organs, filling up the interstices between them. 
These spaces may, however, be so arranged that the blood 
flows in definite channels or sinuses. The blood is further 
confined to definite paths by membranes stretched across 
the dorsal and ventral walls of the abdomen (DDph and 
VDph, Fig. 78) which bound the chief sinuses. These 
diaphragms have a rhythmical motion and assist in the 
circulation of the blood. The heart (Hi) is located dorsal 
to the dorsal diaphragm, this sinus being therefore known 
as the pericardial chamber. The heart is a long muscular 
tube consisting of four chambers lying in the third, fourth, 
fifth and sixth segments of the abdomen. In each of these 
segments is a valvular opening (ostium, Ost) on each side 
for the admission of blood from the pericardial chamber, 
and there are also segmental valves to prevent a backward 



The Life Processes of the Individual 



149 




flow of blood. The posterior end of the heart is closed 
but on the anterior end it is continued in a long tube (aorta, 
Ao) extending in various convolutions and arches through 



150 Beekeeping 

the thorax and opening by simple branches into the head 
cavity. 

The blood of the bee is a colorless liquid containing certain 
corpuscles, but no red ones such as are found in mammals. 
The blood is forced through the heart and aorta to the head 
cavity. It then flows backward through the sinuses of the 
thorax into the ventral sinus of the abdomen. Pumped 
backward by the pulsation of the ventral diaphragm, it 
flows through various definite cavities between visceral 
organs in the abdomen and into the pericardial cavity, 
from which it again enters the heart through the ostia. In 
its passage through the sinuses about the viscera, the blood 
takes up the food which has passed through the walls of 
the alimentary canal. This nourishment is promptly 
carried to all parts of the body by the circulation. 

METABOLISM 

It is not proposed at this time to enter into a long dis- 
cussion of the ways by which each organ is rebuilt as needed. 
In the general discussion of the cells which make up the 
various organs (p. 94), it was stated that each cell is ca- 
pable of taking up nourishment and of building this into 
protoplasm. It also utilizes oxygen furnished by the res- 
piratory processes. To this process the name anabolism 
is given. Not all cells require the same constituents of the 
food presented or the same amount of oxygen, but by some 
mysterious process each cell is enabled to choose those parts 
which it needs. Similarly, as the activities of the cells 
progress, protoplasm is broken down and waste products 
are formed : this we know as katabolism. The final products 
of katabolism are carbon dioxid and water, together with 
various more complex chemical compounds usually con- 
taining nitrogen, such as uric acid and urea. The elimina- 
tion of the more complex waste products is discussed under 
excretion. 



The Life Processes of the Individual 151 



RESPIRATION 

That an animal may live, it must have oxygen. The 
oxygen taken into the body in respiration does not go to 
form protoplasm in the various cells but it is used to com- 
bine with the products of katabolism to make simpler com- 
pounds which can be eliminated from the body. These 
products of the breaking down of the living substance are 
of such a character that they poison the cells unless they 
are promptly removed. The process is like ordinary com- 
bustion in that these products combine with oxygen to 
form carbon dioxid and water and to generate heat. 

In man, the oxygen is taken into the lungs and the blood 
is pumped there to meet the oxygen. But the bee does not 
have a closed circulation which will effectually carry the 
blood to the oxygen. Furthermore, the higher animals 
have in their red blood corpuscles a substance, haemoglobin, 
which is capable of absorbing abundant oxygen, but this is 
lacking in the colorless blood of insects. In the bee, instead 
of the blood being carried to the oxygen, the oxygen is 
carried to the blood by means of tracheal sacs and a multi- 
tude of tracheal branches which go to every organ and to 
every part of the bee's body. These tracheae receive their 
air supply through openings in the outer wall, the spiracles, 
two pairs on the sides of the thorax and eight pairs on the 
abdomen. The tracheae are composed of a delicate epi- 
thelium lined with a thin layer of chitin. To prevent the 
collapse of the tracheal trunks, some of them are further 
strengthened with spirally placed rings of chitin, which 
are thickenings of the chitin lining. The finer branches 
lack these chitin rings and there are few heavy trunks in 
the bee, the walls usually being delicate. 

The oxygen is therefore carried to all parts of the bee's 
body, passes through the walls of the tracheal system, is 
absorbed by the blood and is carried to every cell. The 
products of katabolism are in turn carried by the blood, 
and the water vapor (at least most of it) and the carbon 



152 



Beekeeping 



dioxid enter the tracheal branches and are expelled through 
the spiracles. The more complex compounds are eliminated 
in the process of excretion. 

The tracheal system of the bee is shown sufficiently in 

the accompanying il- 
lustration (Fig. 79) so 
that a detailed de- 
scription is unneces- 
sary. The abdomen 
contains the unusu- 
ally large tracheal 
sacs (TraSc) connected 
with each other by 
ventral commissures 
(TraCom). They are 
also connected with 
tracheal sacs of the 
thorax. From the 
most anterior spiracles 
of the thorax are 
heavy trunks to the 
air sacs of the head, 
above the brain. The 
tracheal system of the 
bee is more elaborate 
than that of most 
other insects and prob- 
ably in no other 
species is there more 
free access of oxygen 
to all parts of the 
body. 

The pumping of the 
air through the body is accomplished by the respiratory 
movements of the abdomen, consisting of a lengthening 
and shortening of the abdomen and a slight dorso-ventral 
movement. The muscles of the abdomen which function 




TraConi 



Fig. 79. — Tracheal system of worker with 
dorsal sacs and trunks removed, from above. 



The Life Processes of the Individual 153 

in respiration have been described by Carlet, 1 who dis- 
tinguishes seven sets. It is stated by Djathchenko 2 that in 
expiration the spiracles are momentarily closed, the contrac- 
tion of the muscles thus forcing air to the minute branches. 
The spiracles are then opened and the air is expelled. 



EXCRETION 

The products of the breaking down of protoplasm consist, 
as previously stated, of carbon dioxid, water and various 
compounds containing nitrogen. Since the adult honeybee 
can live for long periods (especially in winter) on pure sugar, 
excretion must at times be reduced to a minimum. Sugar 
breaks down into carbon dioxid and water, both of which 
may pass off as gases through the tracheal system. It is 
only the other components of honey and the pollen which 
ultimately go to form nitrogenous compounds. The carbon 
dioxid is all expelled through the tracheae and probably 
most of the water escapes as vapor by this course, although 
some may be ejected with the nitrogenous compounds. 
The excretory organs are the Malpighian tubules (Fig. 60, 
Mai), about 100 in number in the bee, which open into the 
alimentary canal at the junction of the ventriculus and the 
intestine. They are long delicate tubes which coil about 
the other viscera. These tubules are only one cell in thick- 
ness and the ends of these cells (Epth, Fig. 77, C) often 
bulge into the cavity of the tubule. The junction of the 
Malpighian tubules with the intestine is shown in Fig. 77, G. 
Minute crystals of urates have been found in the Malpighian 
tubules. The excreted products empty into the intestine 
and are expelled in the feces. 

In the fat body (located in the body cavity) are found 
certain large cells of rather mysterious function, called 

1 Carlet, G., 1884. Sur les muscles de l'abdomen de l'abeille. Comptes 
rendues de l'Acad. des Sci. de Paris, XCVIII, pp. 758-759. 

2 Djathchenko, Sophie, 1906. Zur Frage der Athumsorgane der Biene. 
Ann. de l'lnst. agron. de Moscou, XII, pp. 1-14. 



154 Beekeeping 

oenocytes. Koschevnikov l states that the cenocytes of 
the young adult bee have a uniform, slightly pigmented 
protoplasm, while in old bees yellow granules begin to ap- 
pear in these cells. After the winter confinement, these 
granules are numerous and in old queens they are especially 
abundant. According to the view of this author, cenocytes 
are excreting cells which take up waste products of katabo- 
lism and, after modifying them, deliver them again to the 
blood to be carried to the Malpighian tubules. The changes 
of age may be interpreted as due to an accumulation of these 
products in cells which are no longer able to discharge them. 
This failure of the cenocytes should be investigated from 
the point of view of the term of life of the bee. In some of 
the primitive insects the fat body is supposed to function 
as a permanent storage for urates. 

LOCOMOTION 

Bees are able to go from place to place by means of two 
systems of locomotor organs, the wings and the legs. Both 
of these are attached to the thorax and the muscles of flight 
are so well developed that they occupy almost the entire 
space in the thorax. 

The wings (Fig. 80) are membranous structures with a 
definite framework of veins attached to the sides of the 
thorax. As previously explained (p. 99) they are not 
primary embryonic appendages, but are secondary out- 
growths from the second and third thoracic segments. The 
details of the venation of the wings need not be considered 
at length. This has been investigated in a careful manner 
by Comstock and Needham 2 and the designations used in 
Fig. 80 are those decided upon by these authors after a 
study of the comparative venation of the various orders of 
insects. The symbols are explained in the appendix. The 

1 Koschevnikov, G. A., 1900. Ueber den Fettkorper und die (Enocyten 
der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera L.). Zool. Anz., XXIII, pp. 337-353. 

2 Comstock, J. H., and Needham, J. G., 1898-99. The wings of insects. 
Am. Nat., XXXII and XXXIII: Reprinted, Ithaca, N. Y. 



The Life Processes of the Individual 



155 



attachment of the bee's wings to the thorax has been in- 
vestigated by Snodgrass (I.e. pp. 61-63). 

The motion of the wings in flight is in four directions, up, 
down, forward and backward, and the combination of these 
movements causes the wing tips to describe the course of a 
figure 8, if the insect is held stationary. In flight, the 8 
is of course modified. The hind wings are small and are 
attached by hooks on their anterior margins to thickenings 
on the margin of the front wings. They are not provided 
with large flight muscles of their own but are carried along 
by the action of the powerful muscles in the mesothorax 
which propel the fore 
wings. 

The muscles of flight 
are in four sets, cor- 
responding to the four 
directions of wing move- 
ment. The chief muscles 
are not attached directly 
to the bases of the wings, 
as in dragonflies, but the 
wings are moved into 

the right position by muscles situated inside the pleura of 
the two thoracic segments. After the wings are in position 
for flight, the compression of the thorax by the vertical 
muscles lowers the dorsum and raises the wing while the 
contraction of the longitudinal muscles raises the dorsum 
and lowers the wing. The vertical muscles are therefore 
the elevators and the longitudinal muscles the depressors. 
The movements of the wings during flight is therefore 
produced mainly by changes in the shape of the thorax. 
The forward and backward movements are accomplished 
by the action of the muscles on the pleurum, acting directly 
on the bases of the wings. 

Because of the enormous development of the two main 
sets of flight muscles, bees are capable of strong and rapid 
flight. They are also capable of arresting progress suddenly 




Fig. 80. — Fore and hind wings. 




Fig. 81. — A, left front leg of worker, anterior view; B, spine of antenna 
cleaner; C, details of antenna cleaner; D, left middle leg of worker, 
anterior view; E, left hind leg of queen, anterior view; F, left hind leg 
of worker, anterior view ; G, inner view of left hind leg of worker, show- 
ing pollen-combs ; H, left hind leg of drone, anterior view. 

156 



The Life Processes of the Individual 



157 






or of getting under way rapidly. There is no reason to be- 
lieve that flight is in any way dependent upon the amount 
of air in the tracheae, as has been claimed, for filling the 
air sacs obviously does not reduce the weight of the bee. 
The maximum rate of flight is not clearly established, for 
the currents of air must be eliminated in making such de- 
terminations ; the rapidity of movement depends largely 
upon the load being carried. Bees are able to fly at a con- 
siderable angle for some Url K *"Hj . \\ 






distance 




as is seen in 
apiaries in mountainous 
districts. The power of 
the wing muscles is shown 
by the ability of a 
worker to fly from the 
hive carrying a drone, 
which weighs more than 
the worker itself. 

In walking, bees use 
all six legs (Fig. 81). In 
addition to their function 
in locomotion, the legs 
constitute a rather com- 
plex set of tools for nu- 
merous other purposes, 
especially complex in the 
worker. On the front legs at the articulation of the tibia 
and first tarsal joint are the antennae cleaners. The 
middle leg has a spur to which has been attributed the 
function of prying pollen from the hind legs in storing it. 
The hind legs of the worker bees are highly specialized, 
carrying pollen baskets or corbicula on the outer side of 
the flattened tibiae and rows of spines on the inner side of 
the first tarsal joint. Between these two joints are the so- 
called wax-shears, which in fact have nothing to do with 
the wax, but function in pollen gathering (p. 123). Each 
leg is provided with a pollen brush for collecting pollen. 



Fig. 82. — Dorsal (A), ventral (B) and 
lateral (C) views of last tarsal joint 
of first foot of worker. 



158 Beekeeping 

The muscles for moving the legs are located inside the 
joints and are inserted on the chitinous walls. 

The last tarsal joint on each leg carries a pair of bilobed 
claws (Fig. 82, Cla), which differ among the three types of 
bees. Those of the drone are bent more nearly at right 
angles than those in the workers and queens and those of 
the queen are larger than the claws of the workers. Between 
the claws is a lobe (empodium, Emp) used when the bee 
walks on a smooth surface. On such a surface the claws 
are useless and the sticky empodium is lowered and flat- 
tened, providing a good foothold. 

The motion of the legs in walking is typical of all insects. 
The legs move in two sets ; the fore and hind legs on one 
side move in the same direction as the middle leg on the 
opposite side, thus giving a triangle for support at all times. 
In flight the legs hang freely and are forced somewhat 
backward, except when they are being used as in the manipu- 
lation of pollen (p. 123). 

PROTECTIVE APPARATUS 

Worker bees defend the colony by means of the sting, 
situated usually in a cavity at the tip of the abdomen (Fig. 

76) but capable of marvelously rapid action when it is 
protruded. As was stated earlier (p. 140), this sting cavity 
is formed by the infolding of the eighth, ninth and tenth 
segments of the abdomen. The sting is homologous with 
the ovipositor of other insects (see Snodgrass, I.e. pp. 76- 

77) and is made up of parts considered by some embry- 
ologists as comparable with the legs and mouth parts of 
the more anterior segments of the bee. The sting of the 
worker bee is straight while that of the queen is longer, 
curved and less strongly barbed. 

The sting (Fig. 83) and its accessory apparatus form a 
rather complex structure. The shaft consists of three parts, 
a dorsal sheath (ShS) along which move two barbed lancets 
(Let). The sheath is enlarged at the anterior end into a 



The Life Processes of the Individual 



159 



bulb (ShB) and is further continued in two arms (ShA) 
which curve outward. The lancets slide on a grooved 
track the full length of the sheath, past the bulb and diverge 
along the two basal arms. The sheath and lancets combine 
to form a hollow tube (PsnC) through which the poison 
flows. 

The arms of the sheath are attached at their anterior 
ends to oblong plates (Ob) which overlap the sides of the 
sting. To these plates 
are attached palpi 
(StnPlp), soft white pro- 
jections provided with 
sense organs, by means 
of which the bee can 
tell when she is in con- 
tact with the object 
which is to be stung. 
The lancets are attached 
to triangular plates (Tri) 
which in turn articulate 
with the quadrate plates 
(Qd). By the move- 
ments of these plates on 
each other the lancets 
are slid along the sheath 
when the sting is used. 
It has been shown by 

Zander l that the triangular plate (Tri) is part of the 
eighth sternum, the quadrate plate (Qd) is part of the 
ninth tergum and the oblong plate (Ob) is the ninth 
sternum. 

"In the accessory plates of the bee's sting we have a 
most excellent illustration of how parts of a segment may 
become modified to meet the requirements of a special 
function, and also an example of how nature is ever reluctant 

1 Zander, Enoch, 1899. Beitrage zur Morphologie des Stachelapparates 
der Hymenopteren. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., LXVI, pp. 288-333. 




Fig. 83. — Ventral view of sting of worker 
and accessory parts, flattened out. 



160 Beekeeping 

to create any new organ, preferring rather to make over some 
already existing structure into something that will serve a 
new purpose." — Snodgrass, I.e. p. 78. 

The poison of the . sting arises from two sets of glands. 
The conspicuous poison sac (PsnSc) which opens into the 
bulb of the sting is usually seen attached to the sting when 
the sting is pulled from a bee. The contents of this gland 
have an acid reaction and it was formerly believed to be 
formic acid. This acid comes from two long coiled tubes 
(AGID) on which are two small enlargements, supposed 
to be the secreting glands (AGl). The tubes (AGID) also 
probably have gland cells in the walls. The other poison 
glands (BGl), known as the alkaline glands, also empty into 
the bulb of the sting. Their secretion is supposed to have 
an alkaline reaction. According to Carlet, 1 the secretions 
of these two sets of glands must be mixed to be fully effec- 
tive. The secretions enter the bulb where they are mixed 
and are then forced down the canal (PsnC) formed by the 
sheath and lancets. 

In most books on bees, certain lateral openings in the 
lancets are described as paths of the poison in the process 
of stinging. Snodgrass showed, however, that these do not 
connect with the poison canal and supposed them to be ducts 
of some kind of subcuticular glands. Mclndoo has shown 
them to be olfactory pores (p. 170). 

The sting, as every beekeeper knows, is an effective 
weapon of defense. When used, it usually cannot be with- 
drawn because of the barbs (Brb) on the lancets. The 
sting with the accessory plates and poison sac are therefore 
usually torn from the body of the bee, causing so severe 
an injury to the abdomen that the worker dies within a 
short time. The defender is thus sacrificed for the good 
of the colony. The parts torn away include the muscles 
which operate the accessory plates and indirectly slide the 
lancets on the sheath. The sting may therefore be driven 

1 Carlet, G., 1890. Memoir sur le venin et l'aiguillon de l'abeille. 
Ann. des sci. nat., Zool., 7 ser., IX, pp. 1-17. 



The Life Processes of the Individual 161 

farther and farther into the wound if not promptly re- 
moved and the same reflex actions of the muscles serve to 
force more poison from the poison sac. In removing the 
sting, care should be exercised not to squeeze the poison 
sac thus emptying its contents into the wound. 






CHAPTER VII 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SENSES 

In order that bees may respond to factors in the environ- 
ment, obviously these influences must be perceived. The 
organs which receive the stimuli from without are the special 
organs of sense. The resulting nervous impulses are then 
transmitted through the nervous system, by means of which 
also the actions of the animal are coordinated and molded 
in response to the stimuli received. The nervous system 
and its various organs of special sense are therefore of the 
highest importance to the animal and the influence of the 
stimuli of the environment are so important in the behavior 
of these insects as to justify a separate chapter. 

Nowhere in the entire discussion of bee activities is it 
more necessary to avoid comparisons with our own actions 
than here. Man is capable of conscious and volitional 
acts while evidence of such acts in bees is lacking. Further- 
more, the structure of the nervous system and of the sense 
organs is so unlike analogous structures in man that at- 
tempts at homologies are entirely unwarranted. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM 

This system of organs consists of a series of nerve masses 
called ganglia (Fig. 84, Grig) situated on the mid-ventral 
line of the body, the ganglia being connected by a pair of 
longitudinal cords, called connectives. The nerve cells are 
located in the ganglia while the delicate processes from 
these nerve cells, the nerve fibers, form the connectives 
and also go to all parts of the body, some serving to trans- 

162 



The Nervous System and the Senses 



163 



^KSSHT 



mit stimuli from the sense organs and some to carry stimuli 
from the nervous system to the various organs of the body. 
The nerve fibers there- 
fore are often compared 
with wires used in con- 
ducting electric energy 
from place to place. 

In an hypothetical 
generalized insect em- 
bryo we should doubt- 
less find a ganglion for 
each segment of the 
body, probably twenty 
in all, but the ganglia 
of the bee larva are 
modified from the primi- 
tive condition and in 
the adult still further 
specialization is ob- 
served, by the fusion 
of various ganglia. 

The brain (Fig. 85), 
situated above the oesoph- 
agus, consists of three 
consecutive ganglia, rec- 
ognizable in the embryo, 
but completely fused and 
not readily recognizable 
in the adult. From the 
brain, two short connec- 
tives (circum-cesopha- 
geal) pass one on either side of the oesophagus to the 
subcesophageal ganglion (SceGng) also located in the 
head. Continuous with the brain are the optic lobes (Opl) 
forming the nervous connection with the large compound 
eyes (E), and from the brain are nerves to the antennae 
(AntNv) and also to the frontal ganglion (FtGng), from 




Fig. 



84. — Nervous system of worker, 
dorsal view. 



164 



Beekeeping 



which the stomatogastric system (sympathetic system) 
has its origin (StgNv). The subcesophageal ganglion gives 
off nerve branches to the mandibles (MdNv), maxillae (MxNv) 
and labium (LbNv). For a study of the minute structure of 
the brain and the paths of the various nervous elements, the 
reader is referred to the works of Kenyon 1 and J'onescu. 2 




AntNv 



SoeGng ' 



LmNv 
Fig. 85. — Brain and subcesophageal ganglion of worker, anterior view. 



In the thorax the number of ganglia is reduced to two 
(Figs. 78 and 84, IGng and 2Gng). The first innervates the 
first pair of legs while the second is a combination of four 
ganglia, as shown by the fact that it innervates the meso- 



1 Kenyon, F. C, 1896. The brain of the bee. Jr. comp. neurol., VI, 
pp. 133-210. 

, 1897. The optic lobes of the bee's brain in the light of recent 

neurological methods. Am. nat., XXXI, pp. 369-376. 

2 Jonescu, C. N., 1909. Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber das 
Gehirn der Honigbiene. Jenaischen Zeit. f. Naturwiss., XLV, N. F., 
XXXVIII. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 165 

and metathoracic segments (with the corresponding two 
pairs of legs and wings) and the first abdominal segment, 
which is fused with the thorax in the bee, as well as the first 
segment of the abdomen behind the constriction. It should 
be noted that nerves {W2Nv and W3Nv) run to the bases of 
the wings to innervate sense organs (p. 170). 

In the abdomen are five ganglia (3-7Gng) which send nerve 
branches to the remaining abdominal segments. The third 
and fourth ganglia lie one segment in front of the segments 
which they innervate while the remaining ones are in their 
own segments, the last (7Gng) supplying the remaining 
posterior segments of the abdomen, it therefore being ac- 
tually a fusion of four ganglia. 

The action of the nervous elements remains a matter 
chiefly of conjecture. These cells have lost their contractility 
and probably never regenerate nor divide in the adult bee. 
Their function is obviously important, for if this system is 
injured the coordination of the body is destroyed. However, 
the cutting of the nerve cord does not cause death and even 
if the thorax and abdomen are entirely separated the parts 
may function independently. If the head is removed, the 
animal can still walk and if the abdomen is removed it can 
still take in food. These facts indicate that the nervous 
control of the body is not centralized in the brain as com- 
pletely as in man and in many other animals. Proper 
correlation of movement cannot, however, take place unless 
the nervous connections are intact. 



SENSE ORGANS 

So little is known of the structure and function of the sense 
organs of bees that this subject must be discussed with 
caution. We know that the simple and compound eyes 
are the organs of sight and recently it has been found where 
the organs of smell are located. Beyond this is a vast field 
for investigation and a fertile field for speculation. 



166 



Beekeeping 



Sight. 

The organs which receive light stimuli are the three simple 
eyes or ocelli (0) and the two large compound eyes (E), all 
situated on the head. The compound eyes are located on 



Cor 




®ega8^!SSffi^ 




Fig. 86. — Section of compound eye and optic lobe of worker ; Om, 

ommatidia. 



the sides of the head, each eye consisting of many units. In 
drones, the number of these units is larger than in the two 
types of females and the compound eyes are so enlarged as to 
meet on the vertex of the head. The structure of the units 
of the compound eye was described some years ago. 1 On 

1 Phillips, E. F., 1905. Structure and development of the compound 
eye of the honey bee. Proc. acad. nat. sci. Phila., LVII, pp. 123-157. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 



167 



CL 



n 



cc 

o.-p.c. 

C-p.C. 
rhb. 



ret.n. 



the outer surface, these units (ommatidia) are indicated 

by hexagonal facets in the chitinous covering of the eye. If 

a section is cut through the entire eye of 

a worker bee (including the optic lobes), 

the structure is that shown in Fig. 86. 

Numerous ommatidia are shown in full 

length and beneath these are the optic 

lobes, which need not be described here. 

An examination of a single ommatidium 

(Fig. 87) shows the following details of 

structure : (1) an outer corneal lens of 

chitin (CL) continuous with the chitin 

of the head, (2) the crystalline cone (CC) 

and (3) the rhabdome (rhb) surrounded by 

eight or nine sense cells or retinulae (ret). 

Surrounding the ommatidia are two types 

of pigment cells, (1) the corneal pigment 

cells (c.-p.c.), which in the pupal stage 

secreted the chitin of the corneal lens, 

and (2) the outer pigment cells (o.-p.c.). 

So far as can be determined, the functions 

of these parts are as follows : rays of light 

pass through the lens and crystalline cone 

cells and enter the transparent rhabdome 

where the stimulus is received. Any rays 

of light which enter obliquely or which 

strike the edge of the crystalline cone are 

absorbed by the surrounding pigment cells 

so that it seems probable that only those 

rays which strike the surface of the eye 

at a right angle ever reach the sense cells. 

There is no apparatus for changing the 

focus of the lens. 

The type of image formed by the com- 
pound eye has been the subject of con- 
siderable speculation. The two theories 
on this subject are (1) that each facet forms a separate 



-o.-p.c 



Nv 



_BM 



Fig. 87. — Section 
of entire omma- 
tidium. 



168 Beekeeping 

image 1 and (2) that the impressions of the individual facets 
form a mosaic image. 2 The latter theory has most to sup- 
port it and is generally accepted. Forel 3 gives an admir- 
able discussion of these theories and adds considerable evi- 
dence to support the latter theory. 

As was stated earlier, it is probable that only the rays of 
light which strike the lens perpendicularly can reach the 
sensory cells. The image is probably not a distinct one. 
If an object in motion is within the range of vision of the bee, 
the image is transferred rapidly from one set of ommatidia 
to another, which probably accounts for the fact that bees 
perceive objects in motion more readily than they do still 
ones. 

In addition to the compound eyes, there are three simple 
eyes or ocelli (0), which Grenadier 4 states are derived from 
the same primitive organ as the individual ommatidia of 
the compound eyes ; in fact, as shown by him and by Forel, 
compound eyes in some species are replaced by ocelli. 

The parts played by the ocelli and by the compound 
eyes in the vision of the bee are not clear. From a study of 
the angles of refraction, it has been inferred that the ocelli 
are for perceiving near-by objects, while the compound eyes 
are far-sighted. However, just the reverse has been claimed, 
and we have no reliable data on this subject. 

It has been shown by numerous experiments and by the 
experience of beekeepers that bees perceive differences in 

1 Gottsche, C. M., 1852. Beitrag zur Anatomie u. Physiologie des 
Auges der Fliegen u. s. w. Muller's Archiv. f. Anat. 

2 Exner, Sigmund, 1875. Ueber das Sehen von Bewegungen und die 
Theorie des zusammengesetzten Auges. Sitzb. des K. Akad. der Wissensch., 
LXXII, Abth. III. 

This theory goes back to the work of J. Muller, 1826. Zur vergleichenden 
Physiologie des Gesichtsinnes. Leipzig. 

3 Forel, Auguste, 1908. The senses of insects. Eng. trans, by Yearsley. 
London : Methuen and Co. 

4 Grenadier, H., 1874. Zur Morphologie und Physiologie des facet- 
tirten Arthropodenauges. Nachrichten v. d. K. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. a. 
d. G. A. Univ. zu Gottingen, pp. 645-656. 

, 1877. Untersuchungen iiber das Arthropoden-Auge. Beilageheft 

zu d. klinischen Monatsblattern f. Augenheilkunde, XV. Rostock. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 169 

color. It is asserted that ants do not perceive red light 
and the same statement is made concerning bees, but 
this is incorrect for bees. It is also sometimes said that in- 
sects perceive some of the ultraviolet rays, beyond the range 
of human vision. The color preferences of bees have also 
been observed, it often being stated that they prefer blue. 
It seems certain that bees do not see objects distinctly 
and their vision is clearly far less acute than that of wasps 
and some other insects. Perhaps they do not perceive the 
form of objects at all. The relative intensity of light is 
probably an important part of their vision. When it is re- 
called that the hairs (p. 104) cover many facets of the com- 
pound eye, especially in younger bees, and that the structure 
of the eyes does not suggest a high degree of efficiency in 
vision, it becomes a matter of wonder that bees are helped 
by vision as much as appears to be the case. 

Smell. 

It is commonly believed that bees possess an acute sense 
of smell, and this belief is borne out by experiments on this 
subject. With the exception of qualifying statements by 
Lubbock * and Forel, this is usually conceded. The location 
of the olfactory organs is a matter of much less unanimity 
of opinion. Mclndoo 2 has recently performed a valuable 
service in gathering together the literature on the olfactory 
organs in insects and it is necessary only to give a list of the 
organs which are supposed to carry the olfactory organs to 
show the confusion which has existed. These sense organs 
have been located by various authors on the following struc- 
tures : (1) the spiracles, (2) organs close to the spiracles, 
(3) glands of head and thorax, (4) oesophagus, (5) " internal 
superior surface," (6) folded skin beneath antennae, (7) 
rhinarium, (8) plate between eyes and beneath antennae, 

1 Lubbock, Sir John, 1899. The senses, instincts and intelligence of 
animals. Internat. Sc. Ser. London., vol. 65. 

2 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The olfactory sense of insects. Smithsonian 
misc. col. LXIII, no. 9, 63 pp. 



170 



Beekeeping 



(9) mouth cavity, (10) epipharynx, (11) palpi, (12) antennae, 
(13) various structures on the antennae, (14) caudal styles, 
(15) organs on base of wings and on legs, and (16) on different 
organs for different orders of insects. Notwithstanding this 
assortment of theories, it is probably correct to state that 
until recently it was the consensus of opinion that the ol- 
factory organs are located on the 
antennae. However, Mclndoo 1 
shows that if the antennae of the 
honeybee are removed, the insect 
still reacts to odor stimuli. It 
is impossible to go into the de- 
tails of this work here, but, in 
brief, this author concludes that 
certain sense organs located at 
the bases of the wings, on the legs 
and on the stings of females are 
olfactory organs, named by him 
olfactory pores. His work covers 
not only a study of the structure 
and distribution of these organs 
but is supported by experimental 
evidence, which is usually omitted 
in other papers on this subject. 

The location of these organs is 
indicated on the diagrams from 
Mclndoo's paper (Figs. 88 and 
89), the organs being indicated 
o ory ky. ki^k areas an( i the different 

groups being numbered (21 
groups in all, Nos. 19, 20, and 21 being on the sting and 
not shown in the diagrams). The structure of a typical 
olfactory pore is shown in Fig. 90. From the sense cell 
(SC), a nerve fiber (SF) extends to the surface of the 
body through the pore aperture (PorAp), this aperture being 

1 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The olfactory sense of the honey bee. 
exp. zool., XVI, pp. 265-346. 




Fig. 88. — Diagram of dorsal 
view of worker, showing loca- 
tion of groups 
pores. 



Jr. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 



171 



within a flask (PorW) which lies in the chitinous body wall. 
These sense organs have protoplasm exposed to the outer 
air, not covered with chitin, while most of the other organs 
which have been supposed to have the olfactory function 
are covered with a chitinous layer. This is especially to be 
noted in the sense organs of the antennae and it is difficult 
to see how odors may be sup- 
posed to penetrate such layers. 
The structure of the olfactory 
pores therefore fits them for 
their olfactory function and 
Mclndoo has shown by experi- 
mental evidence that this is 
their office. He 1 has also found 
these olfactory organs in spiders 
and in other Hymenoptera. 

Admitting that these olfac- 
tory pores are the true organs 
of smell, we are still confronted 
with some difficulty in deciding 
what part responses to odor 
stimuli play in the behavior of 
bees. That bees are attracted 
by odor to honey during a 
dearth of nectar cannot be 
doubted. Similarly it is be- 
lieved that the recognition of 
hive-mates, the discovery of 
enemies and the reactions to- 
ward the queen are due to re- 
sponses to odors. A difficulty encountered in this field of 
investigation is that the human sense of smell is so inefficient 
that it is difficult to comprehend the responses observed, 




Fig. 89. — Diagram of ventral 
view of worker, showing loca- 
tion of groups of olfactory 
pores. 



1 Mclndoo, N. E., 1911. The lyriform organs and tactile hairs of 
araneads. Proc. acad. nat. sc. Phila., LXIII, pp. 375-418. 

, 1914. The olfactory sense of Hymenoptera. Ibid., LXVI, pp. 

294-341. 



172 



Beekeeping 



which is perhaps but another way of saying that we are too 
prone to put human interpretations on all such observations, 
v. Buttel-Reepen, 1 from his wide experience with bees, 
concludes that there are seven normal odors in a colony of 
bees which influence behavior. These are (1) an individual 
odor, (2) an odor common to the offspring of one queen, 
(3) brood and larval-food odor, (4) drone odor, (5) wax odor, 
(6) honey odor and (7) the hive odor, which is a combination 
of all or part of the other odors. Whether there are other 
normal odors is a matter of conjecture but, in cases of dysen- 
tery or a brood disease, abnormal odors occur which influence 

the behavior of the bees. 

On the dorsal side of the ab- 
domen of the workers and queen 
on the articular membrane be- 
tween the sixth and seventh 
terga (counting the propodium) 
is a transverse area which is 
the external portion of a scent- 
producing organ. This organ 
was described by Nassenoff, 2 
later by Sladen 3 and more re- 
cently Mclndoo 4 has described 
the structure of the glands on 
the interior as well as the ex- 
ternal structure. This organ 
may perhaps be considered as the source of the individual 
odor of the females. 




SC Mft 



Fig. 90. — Cross-section of typ- 
ical olfactory pore: SC, sense 
cell ; SF, sense fiber ; PorAp 
pore aperture. 



1 v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1900. Sind die Bienen Reflex-maschinen ? 
Biol. Centralbl., XX; reprinted Leipzig: Georgi ; Eng. trans, by Mary 
H. Geisler, Medina, O. : A. I. Root Co., 48 pp. 

2 Nassenoff, see Zoubareff, A., 1883. A propos d'un organe de l'abeille 
non encore decrit. Bui. d'apic. Suisse rom., V, pp. 215-216. Trans. Brit, 
bee jr., No. 136. Nassenoff's paper is in Russian. 

3 Sladen, F. W. L., 1901. A scent-producing organ in the abdomen of 
the bee. Gleanings in bee culture, XXIX, pp. 639-640 ; also in Ent. 
month, mag., XXXVIII, pp. 208-211. 

4 Mclndoo, N. E., 1914. The scent-producing organ of the honey bee. 
Proc. acad. nat. sc. Phila., LXVI, pp. 542-555. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 



173 



If the queen is removed from a colony and a strange queen 
is placed among the bees in a cage, after a day or so she has, 
according to the current belief, acquired the hive odor and 
she will be accepted if 
released. If a strange 
bee attempts to enter a 
hive, it is usually recog- 
nized at once and re- 
pelled, this being con- 
sidered as due to the 
possession of a different 
hive odor, but if a field 
bee returns to its own 
hive, it is admitted, be- 
cause it has the hive 
odor. These responses 
may vary according to 
the honey-flow and other 
environmental factors. 
In these cases and many 
others, there is evidence 
of the importance of re- 
sponses to odors in the 
behavior of bees, so that 
there is justification for 
believing that the sense 
of smell is of primary 
importance. It must be 
admitted that the belief 
in this importance is 
based chiefly on the ac- 
cumulated experiences of 
beekeepers rather than 
on careful experiments, which are sorely needed in an examina- 
tion of these data in order to eliminate complicating environ- 
mental factors. Additional evidences of odor influences are 
given in the discussion of swarming. 




Fig. 91 



A, antennal 



Antennal organs: 
joint of drone, showing a few pore plates 
(PorPl) and a group of Forel's flasks 
(FFl) ; B, pore plates and Forel's flasks 
from drone's antenna ; C, pore plates 
(PorPl), pegs (Pg) and tactile hairs 
(THr) from worker's antenna ; D, struc- 
ture of pore plate and tactile hair; 
E, structure of peg ; F, structure of 
tactile hair ; G, structure of Forel's flask ; 
H, structure of pit peg. 



174 Beekeeping 

Antenna! sense organs. 

Before the work on the olfactory pores, just described, it 
was supposed that some of the sense organs on the antennae 
are olfactory organs. Just which of the organs serve in this 
way was not easy to decide. That these are sense organs 
can scarcely be doubted, but in view of the elimination of 
organs of smell from the antennas of bees, the only course at 
present is to describe these organs and leave their function 
to be decided by later experimental work. The accompany- 
ing illustration (Fig. 91) shows the distribution and struc- 
ture of these organs. These organs are known as (1) pore 
plates, (2) pegs, (3) Forel's flasks, (4) pit pegs and (5) tac- 
tile hairs. In all of them the sensory cells are covered 
with chit in. 

Taste. 

To what extent bees have this sense has not been made 
clear. In human experience, the senses of taste and smell 
are so closely related that to determine these separately in 
the bee will prove a somewhat difficult task. There are sen- 
sory cells on the epipharynx, in the mouth cavity, on the 
palpi and perhaps on other mouth parts, some of which may 
prove to be organs of taste. The evidence that bees dis- 
tinguish tastes is meager. It is well known that bees show 
preferences in the material collected. They will for example 
abandon honey-dew if nectar becomes plentiful, but this 
action may not be due to a sense of taste. 

Touch. 

This sense is probably well developed, and it is safe to 
assume that some of the antennal sense organs function in 
this way. The use of the antennae by the bees suggests 
this. Bees are remarkably sensitive to jars and respond 
promptly when touched on various parts of the body. 
Most of the hairs which cover the body are not sensory, 
however. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 175 

Hearing. 

No organ has so far been described for bees which is surely 
an organ of hearing nor is it definitely established that bees 
can hear. In experimenting on this subject, it is of course 
necessary that vibrations through solids be eliminated and 
that the stimulus come to the bee only through vibrations 
of the air. It is commonly believed by beekeepers that 
bees hear, the belief being based chiefly on the fact that bees 
make noises which are interpreted as purposeful. Various 
investigators share this belief, among whom may be men- 
tioned v. Buttel-Reepen l (I.e.). Since this author has 
(pp. 12-18 Eng. trans.) gathered together the evidence on 
this subject, it is necessary here only to mention the various 
phenomena which he details. (1) Queenlessness of a strong 
colony is noticed in from one hour to several hours. The 
bees no longer hum " contentedly," but this gives way to a 
"lamenting buzz." This change is said not to be due to the 
lack of the queen's odor, although the author admits that if a 
dead queen is placed in the colony the agitation ceases. (2) 
If a colony is made queenless and the caged queen is later 
placed in the upper part of the hive, the agitation ceases 
and v. Buttel-Reepen cannot believe that this is due to odor. 
(3) Bees disregard a queen in the open air a foot from the hive. 
From these observations, he believes that odor is not the only 
factor in " communication" of bees and he believes that 
bees communicate by sound. He further details some 
other evidence. (1) "It can hardly be doubted that sounds 
of some kind perhaps serve here [in swarming] for communica- 
tion." (2) The "swarm tone" serves to draw out colonies 
scarcely ready to swarm. (3) The humming of bees is in- 
terpreted as leading the bees during the hiving of a swarm. 

1 On p. 2 (Eng. trans.), v. Buttel-Reepen says: "No zoologist who has 
done any experimental beekeeping can have the least doubt that bees 
have an excellent sense of hearing, since observations yield him hundreds 
of proofs. The man who is not familiar with biological facts might recog- 
nize nothing of the kind with certainty, for up to the present the organ of 
hearing has not been discovered." 



176 Beekeeping 

(4) The queen makes at least two sounds, "teeting" and 
"quahking. " (5) When a queen is "frightened" she emits 
a peculiar sound. This author concludes by claiming that 
the fact that bees do not respond to artificial sounds is no 
proof of a lack of hearing. 

It need scarcely be pointed out that these statements are 
not conclusive evidence of a sense of hearing in bees ; in fact 
most of the phenomena observed are as readily interpreted as 
evidence of a sense of smell. In earlier chapters it is men- 
tioned that the phenomena in swarming and in the hiving 
of a swarm are most plausibly explained as brought about 
by reactions to odors, v. Buttel-Reepen's statement that 
"only the dead bee is quiet" may be answered by the state- 
ment that a totally deaf man often makes more noise in 
walking and frequently by articulate sounds than does a 
man with acute hearing. To sum up, we are justified in 
concluding (1) that no organ or organs of hearing are recog- 
nized, (2) that the existence of a sense of hearing is doubtful, 
and (3) that the investigations so far carried out are incon- 
clusive. 

Temperature sense. 

In the discussion of the activities of bees in winter (p. 90), 
it is stated that at about 57° F. the bees form a cluster and, 
if the outer temperature drops below that point, they begin 
to generate heat. When no cluster is formed the bees are 
more active at temperatures above 69° F. than at tempera- 
tures below this. In a discussion of the temperature of the 
hive at other seasons (p. 60), it is shown that the tempera- 
ture of the hive while occupied by the bees rarely exceeds 
97° F. and that during brood-rearing the temperature of 
the brood chamber is quite constant. This brief summary 
of the facts of hive temperature indicates that in some manner 
bees perceive changes in temperature and it may almost be 
believed that they have a temperature sense superior to our 
own. The nerve endings or sense organs which function 
in this response to temperature stimuli are not determined 



The Nervous System and the Senses 177 

and perhaps this is a function of some of the problematical 
organs on the antennae. 

Finding of the flowers. 

In a previous chapter (p. 118), a discussion is given of 
the division of labor whereby bees are seemingly able to 
apportion the available forage to prevent duplication. In 
this connection the interesting question arises as to how the 
bees find the flowers. Considerable detailed and painstaking 
work has been done on this subject. Plateau l and his 
followers on the one hand believe that bees are guided to the 
nectar by odor, this being supported by experimental evi- 
dence as well as by an array of facts concerning the gathering 
of nectar from inconspicuous flowers. Forel 2 and other 
writers assert, on the contrary, that color is the important 
stimulus and that flowers are found through the sense of 
sight. Plateau's work is open to one important criticism, 
since he overlooks the possibility of the return of bees to his 
mutilated flowers through memory. Burton N. Gates, 
several years ago, showed that bees visit artificial flowers 
and also fly to natural flowers which have been sealed in 
glass tubes. The reaction to these unusual objects was 
entirely normal. These results point strongly to the belief 
that odor is of minor importance in the location of nectar- 

1 Plateau, Felix, 1895-97. Comment les fleurs attirent les insects. Bui. 
acad. roy. d. Belgique, 3 ser., XXX, n. 11, XXXII, n. 11, XXXIII, n. 1, 
XXXIV, n. 9, 10, 11. See also Plateau, 1888. Recherches experimentales 
sur la vision chez les arthropodes, ibid., part. 3-5 and other papers. 

2 Forel, Auguste, 1886-88. Recueil zoologiques Suisse, 1 sen, IV. 
, 1908. The senses of insects. Eng. trans. Yearsley. London : 

Methuen and Co., 324 pp. 

See also: Andrese, Eug., 1903. Inwiefern werden Insekten durch Fabre 
und Duft der Blumen angezogen. Beihefte z. Bot. Centralbl., XV. 

Giltay, E., 1901. Ueber die Bedeutung der Krone bei den Bluten und 
iiber das Farbenunterscheidungs vermogen der Insekten, I. Pringh. Jahrb. 
f. wiss. Bot., XL. 

Detto, Carl, 1905. Blutenbiologische Untersuchungen I u. II. Flora 
odor Allg. bot. Zeit., XCIV. 

Kienitz-Gerloff, 1898 u. 1903. Proffessor Plateau und die Blumentheorie 
I u. II. Biol. Centralbl., XVIII u. XXIII. 



178 Beekeeping 

secreting plants. That bees differentiate between flowers 
which are encountered in their flights is shown by the fact 
that they usually visit but one species on a trip (p. 119). 

Finding of the hive. 

It is well known that bees normally return to the right 
hive. The fact that strange bees are not usually admitted 
may be explained on the basis of difference in colony odors 
but this does not explain the method by which they find 
the right hive in the majority of cases. Bethe 1 asserts that 
the bees are led back to the hive by an "unknown force" 
but, as v. Buttel-Reepen points out in his discussion of 
memory of place in bees, this explanation is not satisfactory, 
and cannot be accepted until the known forces are eliminated. 
It will be recalled (p. 105) that young bees take "play flights" 
on warm days. If bees which have not taken such flights 
are taken out a few feet from the hive, they fail to return. 
Bees that have had some experience on the wing are able to 
return from short distances, and, finally, old bees are often 
able to return if taken away two miles or more. They 
evidently increase in efficiency with experience. It is also 
known that if the hive is moved a foot or more in any direc- 
tion the returning bees seek the entrance to the hive in the 
old place. If the hive has been moved only a short distance 
they may soon find it by searching, but if it is moved several 
feet they may fail to find it. 

If bees were attracted to the hive by odor, the field bees 
would probably have no difficulty in finding it if it were 
moved perhaps a mile. Under such circumstances a short 
distance would make no appreciable difference and yet the 
moving of the hive a foot often delays their entering it. Odor 
is therefore evidently not the guiding sense. 

Bees in the field cannot always see their hive, and in all 
probability, they can see neither far nor distinctly. If 

1 Bethe, A., 1898. Durfen wir Ameisen und Bienen Psychische Quali- 
taten zuschreiben? Arch. f. d. ges. Phys., LXX, also as separate, 
Bonn : Emil Strauss, with different paging. 



The Nervous System and the Senses 179 

sight is their guide, they must remember various objects 
over or about which they fly as they go out and must return 
by known paths. This is actually the case. If bees are 
accustomed to fly in only one direction to the forage and 
are carried off a short distance into unknown environment, 
they fail to return. It is evident that bees are guided back 
to their hives by a memory of the objects encountered, as 
perceived by sight. If a hive is moved, they then follow over 
the accustomed paths to the old location of the entrance, 
but having no experience over the road from the old location 
to the new one, they fail to make the trip unless they acciden- 
tally encounter the hive. No "unknown force" need be 
called in here to explain the phenomena. Evidently the play 
flights and the early trips to the field are the times during 
which bees acquire knowledge of their surroundings. If a 
colony is moved several miles, the bees must orient themselves 
anew, and in order that they may perceive the change and 
■" recognize" the necessity for re-orientation, the beekeeper 
often places brush or grass about the entrance so that the 
change may be perceived when they first fly out. 

That sight is the important sense in the location of the hive 
is appreciated by beekeepers who have learned that irregu- 
larities in the rows of hives, landmarks of trees or shrubs 
in the apiary or differences in color of the hives are beneficial 
in enabling the bees to find their hives quickly. These cus- 
toms are well founded on the behavior of the bees. 

Memory. 

It would appear from the preceding discussion that bees 
are not entirely bundles of reflexes but that they actually 
have memory. The finding of the hive is good evidence of 
this fact and it is also asserted (v. Buttel-Reepen) that they 
remember the location of the feeder in the hive and that 
scouting bees remember the paths to the locations chosen 
by them. 

The best evidence of memory is found in the fact that 
memory is sometimes lost. If bees are stupefied by tobacco 



180 Beekeeping 

smoke, by the smoke of the puff ball (an old practice) or 
by some anesthetic, they are unable to return to their old 
location and must re-orient themselves after they revive. 
When bees swarm they usually do not again return to the 
location of the old hive (except when hived on the old stand 
by the beekeeper) and may safely be placed in a new location 
perhaps only a few feet from the old hive. The memory of 
the old location is not lost immediately, however, for if 
within a day or two the bees desert the new quarters they 
often return to the old hive. Here the old memories are, as 
it were, reserved, but they are lost in a short time. Simi- 
larly in artificial swarms, after drumming or after certain 
manipulations in which the colony becomes " demoralized," 
the memory of the location is lost, either permanently or 
temporarily. If bees are confined for a few days they may 
be placed in any location and bees wintered in a cellar no 
longer remember their former locations. The loss of memory 
in these cases is not due to the formation of new associations. 
Bees obviously cannot lose what they do not possess and, if it 
is granted that memory is sometimes lost, the only conclusion 
is that they possess memory. 

Nature of bee activities. 

In the introduction to Chapter III, it was stated that bees 
are essentially creatures of instinct. While in the intervening 
discussions there are given evidences of the possession of 
memory, of limited powers of learning and association and of 
certain adaptations of the reactions of bees to circumstances, 
it should be clear that in the bee we have to do, not with 
human intellects and poetic passions, but with animals whose 
behavior is chiefly guided by mental capacities imprisoned in 
the chains of instinct, with animals most of whose activities 
are justly described as machine-like. If this discussion of 
the nervous responses of bees has destroyed some of the 
poetry of the hive, this can scarcely be considered as a serious 
loss, for it is not by such fancies that we can come to know 
the truth concerning the things about us. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES AND PAR- 
THENOGENESIS 

The organs of reproduction are those which produce the 
cells from which individuals of the next generation develop 
and they also include the accompanying organs which serve 
to permit the proper disposition of the sex cells. The con- 
tinuance of the species is the function of these organs. In the 
larger number of species, new individuals arise from eggs which 
have been fertilized by sex cells of the male of the same 
species. In the honeybee, we are not only interested in the 
methods by which new individuals arise but certain peculiar 
phenomena play an important part in practical apiary ma- 
nipulations. The development of the drones or males from 
unfertilized eggs must be considered, especially by the queen 
breeder. 

Origin of the eggs. 

The eggs from which all the members of the colony develop 
are normally laid by the queen. In this individual, the only 
female in the colony whose reproductive organs are fully 
developed, the ovaries are large and, in fact, she is to a con- 
siderable extent simply an egg-producing machine. The 
ovaries of the queen (Fig. 92) consist of two groups (Ov) of 
egg tubes or ovarioles (ov). These tubes are small at the 
anterior end where the eggs are beginning their growth and 
toward the posterior end the individual tubes, as well as 
the total mass, increase in diameter. At the posterior end, 
the tubules in each mass open into the anterior end of an ovi- 
duct (OvD). The oviducts from the two ovaries unite farther 

181 



182 



Beekeeping 



back into a common tube or duct, the vagina (Vag), which 
opens to the outside below the base of the sting. The 

posterior portion 
of the vagina is 
enlarged, forming 
the bursa copula- 
trix (BCpx). 

Opening from 
the vagina is 
the spermatheca 
(Spm), a sac-like 
organ which serves 
to receive the 
male sex cells, the 
spermatozoa, from 
the drone at the 
time of mating 
and to retain 
them until they 
are needed. At- 
tached to this are 
two accessory 
glands (SpmGl) 
the duct of which 
opens into the 
duct from the 
spermatheca to 
the vagina. The 
duct from the 




Fig. 92. 



Reproductive organs, sting and poison 
glands of queen, dorsal view. 



spermatheca is S- 
shaped and is surrounded by muscles forming the "sperm- 
pump" of Breslau. 1 By the contraction of some of these 
muscles, the lumen of the upper end of the loop is enlarged 
and a small bundle of spermatozoa is taken from the sperma- 
theca. By the contraction of other muscles, the sperma- 

1 Breslau, Ernst, 1905-06. Die Samenblasengang der Bienenkonigin. 
Zool. Anz., XXIX, pp. 229-323. 



The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 183 

tozoa are forced on to the vagina. Cheshire 1 described 
this apparatus incorrectly by assuming that the muscles 
around the duct are sphincter muscles to hold back motile 
spermatozoa. The spermatozoa, according to Breslau, are 
not motile and no retaining muscle is needed. In copu- 
lation the spermatozoa are deposited by the drone in the 
vagina and must find their way to the spermatheca by 
this same duct. There is no special receiving duct as 
described by Cheshire. The spermatheca is not composed 
of muscle layers, as formerly supposed. 

Cheshire estimates that a normal vigorous queen may 
during her lifetime lay 1,500,000 eggs. Since mating occurs 
usually but once, those eggs which are fertilized must re- 
ceive spermatozoa from the supply stored up in the sperma- 
theca at the time of mating. Since at each expulsion of 
spermatozoa a considerable number pass out and all but one 
are wasted, it is necessary that an enormous number be 
stored originally. Cheshire estimates the number at 4,000,- 
000 but it is enough to know that millions are then stored. 
The marvelous feature of the phenomenon is that these 
minute cells are able to live for perhaps five years away from 
the animal in which they were formed (the drone) and at 
the same time are so highly specialized that they can take 
no nourishment. There is no multiplication of spermatozoa 
in the queen as has been hypothecated by various beekeepers. 

The formation of the eggs has been studied by Paulcke. 2 
In the early stages of the formation of the egg at the anterior 
end of the ovarian tubes, the future egg nucleus is surrounded 
by other nuclei which later form nurse cells. There is at 
first no visible differentiation, no cell boundaries being seen, 
but farther down the tube the nuclei are surrounded by cell 
walls. Gradually the future egg cells begin to enlarge and 

1 Cheshire, F. R., 1885. The apparatus for differentiating the sexes in 
bees and wasps. Jr. roy. micr. soc, ser. 2, V, pp. 1-15. 

2 Paulcke, W., 1900. Ueber die Differenzirung der Zellelemente im 
Ovarium der Bienenkonigin (Apis mellifica). Zool. Jahrb. Anat. u. Ontog., 
XIV, pp. 177-202. 



184 Beekeeping 

the individual egg cells are separated by a number of nurse 
cells, 48 to each egg, according to Paulcke. The egg cell 
increases in size chiefly by an accumulation of yolk which 
serves as food for the future embryo, this yolk being supplied 
by the nurse cells, which finally are exhausted and absorbed 
into the yolk of the egg. The egg and nurse cells are sur- 
rounded by an epithelium which grows thinner as the egg 
enlarges and which finally breaks when the egg passes into 
the oviduct. 

The egg is covered by a thin layer of chorion secreted 
around it by the epithelial cells and the boundaries of the 
cells may be seen in the lines which persist on the chorion, 
forming a delicate network on the surface. At the anterior 
end of the egg (where the head of the larva is formed and also 
toward the head of the queen) there is a peculiar arrangement 
of these lines, forming the micropyle. Here the spermato- 
zoon which fertilizes the egg enters, but the mechanism has 
not been adequately described. In most insects there is a 
definite opening for the entrance of the spermatozoon and 
often a complex mechanism for the closing of the opening 
after fertilization. There is nothing so described for the 
bee egg. 

Origin of the male sex cells. 

The organs of the male (Fig. 93) in which the male sex 
cells originate are equally interesting. The spermatozoa 
develop in the testes (Tes), two organs homologous with the 
ovaries of the queen. The development of the spermatozoa 
probably occurs almost entirely during the pupal development 
of the drone and possibly not at all in the adult drone. From 
the testes, the spermatozoa pass through the vas deferens 
(VDef) into the vesicula semenalis (Ves) where they 
collect. The seminal vesicles open into the base of the 
accessory mucous gland (AcGl). These in turn open into a 
single duct, the ejaculatory duct (EjD), unusually large in 
the drone and curiously indented to conform to the structure 
of the vagina. 



The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 185 
EjD Pen AcGI 




vns' vins rxs 



Fig. 93. — A, reproductive organs of drone, dorsal view, natural position; 
B, inner surface of dorsal wall of bulb of penis ; C, group of sperma- 
tozoa and intermixed granules; D, terminal segments of drone ab- 
domen with penis partly protruded; E, lateral view of penis as 
invaginated within abdomen. 



186 Beekeeping 

At the time of copulation, the penis, which is previously 
folded within the abdomen of the drone, is everted and pro- 
jects into the vagina of the queen. The spermatozoa then 
pass through the ejaculatory duct as does presumably also 
the contents of the accessory mucous glands. The forma- 
tion of the spermatozoa has been studied by Meves, 1 by 
Mark and Copeland 2 and by Doncaster. 3 

The sudden expulsion of the penis causes the immediate 
death of the drone. The structure of the penis may be 
readily seen by gently squeezing the abdomen of a drone, 
by which means it is everted. In this case also the drone 
dies immediately so that his death at the time of mating 
should not be attributed to any action of the queen. As has 
been previously stated (p. 69), mating occurs in the air 
outside the hive. 

Parthenogenesis. 

The chief reason why the reproductive processes require 
extended discussion in a book on practical' beekeeping is 
because of the development of the drones or males from 
unfertilized eggs. In most species, the sex cells disintegrate 
unless they unite with the products of the opposite sex of the 
same species, but there are numerous instances in the animal 
kingdom in which egg cells are produced, which, without 
fertilization, are able to develop into normal adults. To 
this phenomenon the name parthenogenesis 4 is given. 

1 Meves, Fr., 1903. Ueber Richtungskorperbildung im Hoden von 
Hymenopteren. Anat. Anz., XXIV, pp. 29-32. 

, 1907. Die Spermatocytenteilungen bei der Honigbiene (Apis 

mellifica L.) nebst Bemerkungen uber Chromatinreduction. Arch, f . Microsk. 
Anat. u. Entwick., LXX, pp. 414-491. 

2 Mark, E. L. and Copeland, Manton, 1907. Some stages in the sper- 
matogenesis of the honey bee. Proc. Am. acad. arts and sciences, XLII, 
pp. 103-111. 

3 Doncaster, L., 1906. Spermatogenesis of the hive bee, Apis mellifica. 
Anat. Anz., XXIX. 

, 1907. Spermatogenesis of the honey bee. Ibid., XXXI. 

4 For a more extended discussion, see Phillips, E. F., 1903. A review 
of parthenogenesis. Proc. Am. philos. soc, XLII, No. 174, pp. 275-345. 



The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 187 

In 1745, Bonnet described the parthenogenetic develop- 
ment of plant lice and just one hundred years later Dzierzon 
announced his theory that the drone is likewise a product 
of an unfertilized egg. This later paper, published in the 
Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, was the beginning of a long and 
heated discussion in which the leading zoologists of the day 
took part. Briefly his theory was as follows : (1) the queen 
is able "at pleasure" to lay either worker or drone eggs, the 
drone eggs being deposited just as they leave the ovary 1 ; 
(2) all eggs in the ovary are eggs which would normally 
develop into males and if fertilization occurs the sex is 
changed to female. It is well to divide Dzierzon's theory 
into these two parts for they are not equally capable of proof. 

The facts observed in the apiary on which this belief is 
based are as follows : (1) If a queen is unable to fly out to 
mate or is prevented from mating in some other way she 
usually dies (p. 70) but if she does lay eggs, as she may, 
after three or four weeks, the eggs which develop are all males ; 
(2) if when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa 
is exhausted, her offspring are all males ; (3) if a colony be- 
comes queenless and remains so for a time, some of the 
workers may begin egg-laying and in this case too only 
males develop. The author has found that many eggs laid 
by drone-laying queens fail to hatch and, in fact, are often 
removed in a short time by the workers. This makes it 
impossible for us to accept Dzierzon's statement that all 
eggs laid by such a queen become males and the statement 
must be modified as follows : all of those eggs laid by a drone- 
laying queen which develop become males. The poten- 
tialities of the eggs which never hatch are not known. In 
addition to the facts here stated, the theory of the partheno- 
genetic development of the drone is supported by investiga- 
tions of the phenomena of development in the egg. 

1 Onions (1912, South African fertile-worker bees. Agricultural Journal 
of the Union of S. Af ., May) claims that in South African bees females are also 
produced parthenogenetically. -The claim is supported by considerable 
evidence. See also Van Warmelo, D. S., ibid., 1913, who denies this state- 
ment. 



188 Beekeeping 

Sex determination. 

The determination of sex is one of the most earnestly 
debated questions in zoology. Numerous theories have been 
proposed, most of which are not now seriously considered. 
From the observations and conclusions of Dzierzon and other 
observers it was long held that sex in bees and similar forms 
(ants and wasps) is determined by the presence or absence 
of fertilization. These species were seemingly an exception 
to the phenomenon observed in most species. Of recent 
years, sex determination has been the object of numerous 
investigations and it is now quite generally accepted that 
sex is inherited in accordance with the same laws which govern 
other phenomena of inheritance. It is, of course, impossible 
to attempt to record here or even to outline the observations 
which lead to this theory or to elaborate the theory, as has 
been done by various authors. It is now held that one of 
the chromosomes (the bearers of hereditary characters) of 
the sex cells bears the sex-determining character. If we 
take into consideration the important fact that not all the 
eggs of an unfertilized (drone-laying) queen hatch, then the 
bee does not appear as an exception in Nature. It seems 
clear, however, that the statement of Dzierzon that all the 
eggs in the ovary are male eggs cannot be accepted and it is, 
in fact, not improbable that the eggs destined to be females 
die for want of fertilization, while the eggs destined to be 
males, not requiring fertilization, are capable of development. 
It should be understood that the casting of doubt on Dzier- 
zon's theory of sex determination does not invalidate his 
theory in so far as it pertains to the development of males 
from unfertilized eggs. 

In view of the fact that drone eggs are usually deposited 
in the larger cells, the theory has been advanced that the 
pressure on the abdomen of the queen when she is about to 
lay an egg in a worker cell, by some reflex, causes the sper- 
matheca to open, thereby enabling the egg to be fertilized. 
This is known among American beekeepers as the Wagner 
theory. Since fertilized eggs may be laid in comb foundation 



The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 189 

when the side walls are only started and since drone eggs 
are often laid in worker cells, this simple explanation cannot 
be accepted. 

From the various phenomena observed in connection with 
parthenogenetic development, it appears that fertilization 
of the egg serves two purposes; it brings to the egg the 
hereditary characters of the male parent and also stimulates 
the egg cell to develop by cell division. If development can 
occur without this stimulation, the resulting individual con- 
tains the hereditary characters from one parent only. It 
should perhaps be mentioned that in plant lice both males 
and females sometimes develop from unfertilized eggs while in 
certain Lepidoptera only females develop from unfertilized 
eggs. The male sex is not a necessary result of partheno- 
genetic development. 

The theory that drones develop from unfertilized eggs 
has not been accepted without protest. From the begin- 
ning, it has been assailed by the publication of evidence and 
arguments which were supposed to contradict the theory. 
In the author's paper, to which reference has been made, 
the various contrary views are outlined and the interested 
reader is referred to this paper for references to the literature 
on the subject up to the date of publication (1903). Of 
recent critics, none is so insistent as Dickel, a German bee- 
keeper, who claims that fertile queens cannot lay unfer- 
tilized eggs and that sex is determined by secretions of the 
nurse bees. These fantastic theories with others of a similar 
character have been adequately overthrown by Dickel's 
critics and need not be discussed at length here. 

Practical applications. 

The development of males from unfertilized eggs is a fact 
of importance in various phases of apiary work. If, for 
example, an Italian queen mates with a black drone, the 
workers and queen offspring are hybrids, 1 while the drone 

1 Exception is sometimes taken to the use of the word hybrid as applied 
to a cross of two races, in which sense it is used by beekeepers. This 



190 Beekeeping 

or male offspring is pure Italian. This fact is important to 
the breeder, for drones from mismated queens are just as 
good for breeding purposes as those from purely mated 
queens. It is true that this has been denied by various 
writers but the denial is based chiefly on variation in the color 
of the drones, it being overlooked that color is not a safe 
criterion for the purity of race of either queens or drones. 
Color is a much more stable characteristic in workers. The 
parthenogenetic development of drones must be considered 
in planning any breeding work with bees. In the selection 
of breeding material it does not necessarily follow because 
the workers of a colony have the quality desired that the 
drones of that colony will be best for breeding purposes, 
since the hereditary characters of the workers come from 
two parents while those of the drones come from only one of 
the two. 

Hermaphrodite bees. 

Many cases are recorded l of bees which show both male 
and female characters. These hermaphrodites or androgy- 
nous bees may have male characters on the head and female 
characters in the abdomen or they may be divided longitudi- 
nally in various combinations of characters. There is a 
mixture of male and female characters, varying in different 
individuals, in both external and internal organs. It is a 
peculiar fact, not easy of explanation, that when such cases 
occur there are often many in the same colony. Boveri 2 
suggests that in such cases fertilization is delayed until after 
cell division has begun and that only part of the cells receive 

criticism is probably based on the belief that sterility is characteristic of 
hybrids, as in the case of the mule, or it may be based on the belief that 
the word should be applied only to crosses of true species. There seems to 
be no objection to the word as beekeepers use it. It is most commonly 
applied to crosses of Italian and German bees. 

1 v. Delia Torre, K. W. u. Friese, H., 1899. Die hermaphroditen und 
gynandromorphen Hvmenopteren. Berichte d. naturw.-med. Ver. Inns- 
bruck, XXIV. 

2 Boveri, Th., 1901. Ueber die Polaritat des Seeigel-eies. Verh. Ges. 
Wurzburg (N. S.), XXXIV, pp. 145-176. 



The Reproductive Processes and Parthenogenesis 191 

the male chromosomes. While this theory would readily 
explain the great variation in such hermaphroditic bees it 
is based on the assumption that sex is determined by fertili- 
zation, which may be questioned. 

Eggs which fail to hatch. 

In some cases, one of which came under the author's 
observation, queens are normally mated and lay eggs, but all 
the eggs fail to hatch. This is perhaps due to some abnor- 
mality of the queen, and in the case examined it appeared 
that the failure to hatch might have been due to the evap- 
oration of the water in the protoplasm through the unusually 
thin and soft chorion of the eggs. Similar cases were de- 
scribed by Claus and v. Siebold x and also by Leuckart. 2 

1 Claus u. v. Siebold, 1873. Ueber taube Bienen-eier. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., 
XXIII, pp. 198-210. 

2 Leuckart, R., 1875. Ueber taube u. abortive Bieneneier. Arch. 
Naturgesch., XL. 



CHAPTER IX 

RACES OF BEES 

The honeybee, so well known to beekeepers, has certain 
near relatives which are of interest, and it is quite probable 
that a careful study of the various phases in the behavior of 
these bees would throw considerable light on similar phe- 
nomena in the honeybee. The honeybee is usually considered 
as representing the apex of the evolution of the bees (Apidse), 
in that the social organization is the most complex found 
in this family of insects. The ants (Formicidae) and wasps 
(Vespidse) represent lines of parallel evolution in social life 
which has resulted in insect communities, comparable, but 
by no means identical, with that of the honeybee. 

TYPES OF SOCIAL BEES 

Among the Apidse are three great types of social bees, the 
bumblebee (Bombus), 1 the stingless bees (Melipona and 
Trigona) and the honeybees (Apis) . The simplest forms, the 
bumblebees, have smaller colonies which die out during the 
winter, leaving the species to be continued from fertilized 
queens which hibernate. The stingless bees are tropical 
insects which store their honey and pollen in spherical vessels 
and rear their brood in "combs," one cell in thickness. In 
the honeybee colony, the architecture is the most perfect 
and the honey and pollen are stored and the brood is reared 
in hexagonal cells, which combine to form a comb two cells 

1 For an excellent discussion of the biology of English bumblebees, 
consult Sladen, F. W. L., 1912. The humble-bee, the life history and how 
to domesticate it. London : Macmillan and Co. 

192 



Races of Bees 193 

in thickness. The bumblebees and stingless bees fill a cell 
with pollen and honey, the queen then deposits an egg on 
this mass and the larva is not further fed or cared for. On 
the other hand, the queen honeybee lays her eggs in empty 
cells and the larvae are fed a specially prepared larval food 
as they require it. For a further discussion of the more 
primitive bees as well as of the probable evolution of the 
Apidae, the reader is referred to the interesting paper of v. 
Buttel-Reepen. 1 

SPECIES OF THE GENUS APIS 

In the genus Apis there are other interesting honeybees but 
which have no special practical value. It is of interest to 
note first that specimens of Apis have been found in fossil 
form, preserved in amber, v. Buttel-Reepen mentions A. 
adamitica and A. meliponoides, the latter transitional be- 
tween Melipona and Apis. Among recent species of this 
genus are A. dorsata, the giant bee of India, with its varieties 
zonata and testacea of the Philippines and the Malay penin- 
sula, A. florea, a dwarf bee of India with several varieties 
and finally A. mellifica, 2 the honeybee with the numerous 
varieties to be discussed later. Unsuccessful efforts have 
been made to introduce the giant bees into Europe and 
America, among which may be mentioned the trips of Benton, 
1889 and 1905, and Dathe, 1883. Dathe succeeded in getting 
living dorsata bees to Germany but the effort was fruitless. 
The last mentioned trip of Benton was at the expense of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Dorsata builds a single 
comb in the open air, usually suspended on the limb of a 

1 von Buttel-Reepen, H., 1903. Die stammesgeschichtliche Entstehung 
des Bienenstaates sowie Beitrage zur Lebensweise der solitaren und sozialen 
Bienen (Hummeln, Meliponinen, etc.). Leipzig: Thieme. 

2 For a discussion of the propriety of mellifica as the specific name of 
the honeybee, see v. Buttel-Reepen, H., 1906. Apistica. Beitrage zur 
systematik Biologie u. s. w. Mitth. aus dem Zool. Mus. Berlin, and also the 
English translation of his paper "Are Bees Reflex Machines?" (Medina, 
O. : Root, 1907). See also p. 37 of this book. 

o 



194 Beekeeping 

tree ; there is no distinction between drone and worker cells 
and these bees do not take kindly to confinement in a hive. 1 

VARIETIES OF THE SPECIES MELLIFICA 

In the classification of insects, differences in structure 
and color are the characters on which classification is usually 
made, but in the differentiation of the varieties of honeybees 
there are no constant differences in these characters to guide 
the student. The varieties are established by beekeepers 
because of recognized and well-marked differences in the 
behavior of the bees from various regions. They are, how- 
ever, valid biological varieties. While there are color dif- 
ferences, these are of little value in attempting a classifica- 
tion. Since beekeepers usually refer to these divisions of the 
species as races, this term is here adopted. Roughly the 
races are divided into three groups, (1) the eastern races, 
(2) the European races and (3) the African races. Certain 
characteristics of these groups are valid but the grouping is 
somewhat artificial. The principal races are here discussed 
in the order suggested by this grouping, the names given the 
races being indicative of their origin. 2 

Egyptian. 

These bees are somewhat smaller than the races best 
known to American beekeepers, the abdomen is slender and 

1 For further data concerning the various species of the genus Apis, 
consult the above mentioned papers by v. Buttel-Reepen as well as the 
following : — 

Gerstacker, 1862. Ueber die geographische Verbreitung und die Abande- 
rungen der Honigbiene nebst Bemerkungen uber die auslandischen Honig- 
bienen der alten Welt. Reprinted in v. Buttel-Reepen's Apistica. Partial 
English translation by Dallas, Ann. and mag. of nat. history, 1863, III 
series, vol. 11. 

Koshewnikov, G. A., 1900-1905 [Material for the study of the genus 
Apis] Russian. 

Additional references are given in the v. Buttel-Reepen papers. 

2 None of the races of the honeybee is native to America. The German 
bees were introduced early in the history of the country and are often 
designated native bees, but this is an error. After their introduction they 



Races of Bees 195 

pointed and the cells of the comb are also said to be some- 
what smaller. The first three segments of the abdomen are 
light yellow to reddish yellow with black border, being 
brighter than Italians. The abdomen is covered with grayish 
white hairs. The abdomen of the queen is marked with 
reddish brown on the first segment and the color areas are 
variable. Queens and drones are small and the queens are pro- 
lific. These bees sting furiously and are not subdued by smoke. 
They do not, according to v. Buttel-Reepen, form a winter 
cluster and therefore cannot withstand cold weather. Drones 
are reared in large numbers; the cappings are " watery" ; l 
the queen cells are small, very numerous, clustered and 
smooth. Fertile workers are abundant and are said to be 
present even when there is a laying queen. These bees were 
introduced into Germany in 1864 and to England and 
America in 1867. Here they attracted considerable atten- 
tion but were promptly abandoned as worthless. 

Syrian. 

There are two races of bees in Palestine, one of which is, 
according to v. Buttel-Reepen, identical with the Egyptian. 
The other is known among American beekeepers as the 
Holy Land bees. The Syrians are larger than the Egyptians 
and in color they resemble Italians. These bees swarm 
excessively, build many queen cells and winter poorly. 
Many virgin queens go with after swarms and do not kill 
each other until one is mated. Young queens lay drone 
eggs in the first month. These bees were introduced into 
America in 1880 by Jones and Benton but were soon aban- 
doned as valueless. They were introduced by Hopkins 
into New Zealand in 1883. 

multiplied rapidly and were soon found in the woods. It was formerly a 
common saying that a swarm always flies westward (to new territory). 
1 Some races of bees fill their honey cells more completely than others 
and when the honey is in contact with the capping it gives the honey an 
appearance that is described as watery. When the capping is separated 
from the honey by an air space the capping appears white (or yellow, de- 
pending on the color of the wax). In general the black races seem to 
produce whiter comb cappings than more yellow bees. 



196 Beekeeping 

Cyprian. 

This bee has been given a thorough test by American 
beekeepers. It is somewhat smaller than the Italian and 
the abdomen is pointed, with three yellow bands, similar 
to that of Italians but somewhat lighter in color. The 
queens are small and very prolific. These bees winter well 
unless the colony wears itself out by breeding in winter. 
The workers are exceptionally cross, are not subdued by 
smoke and do not run on the combs. They build many 
queen cells (less than Syrians). Sent (unsuccessfully) to 
America by Gravenhorst in 1877 and first imported by 
Stahala in 1879 : additional shipments by Jones and Benton 
in 1880. They have been widely advertised and tested but 
were abandoned because of their unmanageable qualities. 

Grecian. 

These bees resemble a hybrid between Italians and Ger- 
mans. So far as known they have not been shipped to 
America. They were sent to Germany in 1860 by v. Roser. 

Caucasian. 

These bees vary in color from three bands of yellow on 
the abdomen to black or gray according to the region from 
which they come. The ones introduced into America have 
shown virtually no yellow color, having come from the more 
northern parts of the Caucasus. The yellow examples are 
said to resemble Italians markedly. This is the most 
gentle race known, although they defend their hives well 
against robbers. They seldom enter the wrong hive, win- 
ter well, cap their honey cells white and are, in the main, 
desirable bees. The hybrids are not gentle. They were 
first taken from their native country by Butlerov in 1877 
and were shipped to Germany in 1879 to Vogel, who de- 
scribed them carefully. The first exportations were chiefly 
the yellow strains. In 1880 Julius Hoffman, Ft. Plains, 
New York, received two colonies of these bees but condemned 



Races of Bees 



197 




Fig. 94. — Propolis at entrance, built by Caucasian 
bees. The entrance block on one side made a 
propolis wall unnecessary there. 



them because they did not work on buckwheat ! Later 
Rauchfuss Brothers, Denver, Colorado, imported queens of 
this race and recommended them. Following this, addi- 
tional queens were imported and American bred queens were 
distributed by the United States Department of Agriculture 
several years ago. 

The gentleness of this race is universally admitted, but 
Caucasians have some faults which have caused them to be 
abandoned by most beekeepers who have tried them. They 
use propolis most 
lavishly and in 
the autumn of- 
ten build a wall 
at the entrance, 
leaving holes 
only large enough 
for single bees 
to pass (Fig. 94). 
They also build 

many burr and brace combs. The dark color makes it diffi- 
cult to tell when the queens are purely mated and the dark 
queens are difficult to find on the combs. An additional fac- 
tor which has led to the lack of interest in this race is the 
rapid spread of European foul brood within recent years. 
This has virtually necessitated the use of Italian bees in 
many localities and has discouraged experimentation with 
other races. There are still several prominent beekeepers 
who are enthusiastic in their praise of the Caucasians. 

Italian. 

This is the most popular race of bees among the best 
American beekeepers. The bees of Italy vary considerably 
in color, those in the north of the country being virtually 
identical with the German bees in color. The typical 
" three-banded" Italians are found farther south and in 
Sicily there is a still lighter strain. Some investigators 
believe Italians to be a cross between the German and 



198 Beekeeping 

Egyptian bees. Typically, the yellow color covers three 
segments of the abdomen, the head and thorax and posterior 
segments of the abdomen being black with some traces of 
yellow on the mandibles, and the hairs have a yellow cast. 
The legs are brown. Queens and drones are variable in 
color from solid black to the yellow found on workers. 
Italians are gentle (but not equal to Caucasians in this 
respect), less prolific than the eastern races but usually 
better than black bees, build few queen cells, rarely develop 
fertile workers, keep the hive clean, drive out wax-moths, 
winter well, do not run on the combs, swarm less than Carnio- 
lans and some eastern races and cap their honey less white 
than Germans, Carniolans and Caucasians. The rearing of 
brood is quickly curtailed in a dearth of nectar and they 
cease rearing brood in the autumn sooner than most races. 
An important characteristic of Italians is the resistance to 
European foul brood. In this respect, they have been com- 
pared chiefly with German bees, to which race they are 
vastly superior. 

Italian bees were sent to Switzerland (by v. Baldenstein) 
in 1843, to Germany in 1853, to England (by Neighbor) in 
1859 and to France about the same time (by Hamet), to 
Australia in 1862 and again in 1880, to German Guinea in 
1887, from California to New Zealand in 1880, from Germany 
to Ceylon in 1882 and from Italy to New Zealand (to 
Hopkins) in 1883, to Guam in 1907 (from Hawaii by Van 
Dine). 

The first importation of these bees to America has been a 
matter of some dispute and was the basis of a sharp contro- 
versy. Their introduction marks an important milestone 
in American apiculture, almost equal in importance to the 
invention of the movable-frame hive. About 1855, Samuel 
Wagner and Edward Jessop of York, Pennsylvania, made an 
unsuccessful importation of an Italian colony, which died 
en route. In the winter of 1858-59, Wagner, Langstroth 
and Colvin (Baltimore) sent an order to Dzierzon (Germany), 
which was not delivered. Later in 1859, they received 



Races of Bees 199 

seven living queens l from Dzierzon and reared two or three 
queens that fall, but the imported queens all died the follow- 
ing winter. On the same steamer that brought these queens, 
Mahan (Philadelphia), who had made a trip to Europe 
for these bees, brought over "one or more" queens (of 
doubtful purity). In June 1860, Wagner and Colvin 
received another consignment. In the meantime, S. B. 
Parsons (Flushing, L. I., New York) was commissioned by 
the Agricultural Division of the Patent Office to procure 
ten colonies, which he purchased from Herman of Tamins 
(reported by him January 3, 1860) and shipped from Havre, 
reaching the United States in May. In the annual report 
of the Division of Agriculture submitted January 29, 1861, 
the Superintendent reports that the effort was unsuccessful 
" owing to inattention to the instructions given by the agent 
of the Office." C. J. Robinson later asserted that he and 
Mahan had solicited an order from the Commissioner of the 
Patent Office in 1859 authorizing Mahan to proceed to Italy 
4 and procure bees. This request was refused but it was 
claimed that this instigated the movement to have Parsons 
(an agent of the Division then in Italy) get the bees. Robin- 
son states that Parsons bought ten for the Government and 
ten for himself (this second purchase is denied by the friends 
of Parsons) and that he reported that all the bees consigned 
to the Government died. At any rate, Parsons in 1860 
placed at least some of his stock in the hands of Cary, 
Langstroth, Quinby and others and the sale of Italian queens 
began in 1861. Riley, then Chief of the Division of En- 
tomology, in 1892 claimed for the Government the credit 
of the first importation direct from Italy. Rose (New 
York) received colonies in 1861 and Colvin continued ship- 
ments from the Dzierzon apiary in 1863-64. Various 
other early shipments were made, and now many queens 
are received annually. In the early days of the enthusiasm 

1 A cage dated May 1859 in Dzierzon's handwriting was found by C. H. 
Lake after he purchased the Colvin apiary (Beekeeper's Instructor III, 
No. 12, 1881). 



200 Beekeeping 

over Italian queens they often sold for twenty dollars each. 
Italian bees are now found everywhere that beekeeping is 
conducted and are usually considered preferable to all 
others. In the United States, special attention has been 
given to the breeding of Italian bees and it is probably true 
that better Italian stock can now be obtained in America 
than in Italy. 

To distinguish differences in strains of Italian bees and 
in part to provide trade names, various names have been 
given by American beekeepers to certain types. The five- 
banded or " Golden-all-over " bees have been bred specially 
for an increase in the yellow color on the abdomen. The 
red clover Italians sold several years ago were supposed to 
have a tongue-length above the average, sufficient to allow 
them to get nectar from the red clover blossom. Various 
strains are distinguished by the name of the breeder. The 
specially yellow bees are not usually considered as desirable 
for commercial beekeeping as the typical Italians, which 
are commonly designated as three-banded or leather-colored. 

German. 

These bees are black in color and are generally known 
among American beekeepers as " Black bees." It is of 
interest to note that according to Dzierzon there were yellow 
bees in Germany before Italians were introduced and this 
helps to explain the variation in the German bees. v. Buttel- 
Reepen, following distinctions made by Dzierzon and other 
early writers, divides the German bees into two varieties, 
the typical variety and the heath bees. The typical variety 
is native to Germany, Russia, Scandinavia, Denmark, 
Holland, England, Switzerland, Austro-Hungary and parts 
of other European countries. The heath bee is darker than 
the typical variety, swarms excessively and is especially 
adapted to honey-flows coming in late summer (buckwheat, 
heather) : young queens in after swarms lay drone eggs 
abundantly the first season. This variety is found in Hano- 
ver, Holstein, Oldenburg and Holland. There is a possi- 



Races of Bees 201 

bility that there are two varieties of German bees found in 
the United States, as is so often claimed, and that these 
have arisen from these two natural varieties. 

The German or black bees found in the United States 
seem to combine many of the undesirable qualities of all 
other bees. They are less prolific than Italians, they (and 
especially crosses with Italians) are cross but respond to 
smoke, they build more queen cells than Italians ,and develop 
fertile workers more readily (less in these last respects than 
the eastern races), they do not clean the hive well or resist 
moths completely, they run badly on the combs and fall 
off from the corners of the combs during manipulation and 
they swarm more than Italians. Their greatest fault is 
that they succumb so rapidly to European foul brood that 
it is most difficult to rid a colony of black bees of this disease. 
They cap comb-honey white and winter fairly well, but 
their nervousness is against them in this respect. While 
these bees are condemned by the best American beekeepers, 
some of the leading beekeepers of Europe (especially in 
Switzerland) claim them to be superior to Italians. Since 
no effort has been made to improve these bees in America, 
this may account for this difference of opinion. 

The German or black bees were introduced into New 
England (probably from England) in 1638. In 1644, John 
Eales was brought to Newburg from a neighboring town to 
instruct the people in beekeeping, indicating an early in- 
terest in the industry, but he later became a town charge. 
Black bees reached West Florida not later than 1763, Ken- 
tucky in 1780, New York in 1793, west of the Mississippi 
River in 1797, Cuba in 1764, San Domingo in 1781, New 
South Wales in 1822, Tasmania in 1831, New Zealand in 1839, 
Brazil in 1845 (or earlier), Chile about 1848, California in 
1853, Columbia about 1855 and Argentine in 1857. Har- 
bison took 116 colonies (with a loss of only six) from Penn- 
sylvania to California via Panama in 1857. The same year 
(August 20th) the first bees were shipped from San Jose, 
California, to Hawaii. 



202 Beekeeping 

Carniolan. 

These bees are grayish-black in color and the claim that 
yellow bees were native to parts of Carniola is often ques- 
tioned. Professor Francis Jager is authority for the statement 
that the bees of the Wippach valley (Vipavska dolina) are 
yellow. Carniolan bees are large, gentle (second only to 
Caucasians), prolific, swarm excessively, are good honey- 
gatherers, build numerous queen cells, collect little propolis, 
winter admirably, cap their honey white and do not run 
on the combs during manipulation. It is claimed by some 
beekeepers that they resist European foul brood as well as 
Italians : this should be thoroughly investigated by disin- 
terested persons. They are native to Carniola, Austria. 

These bees have been shipped repeatedly to Germany and 
other European countries and to America. While they 
have some ardent advocates in the United States, they are 
losing ground, especially on account of their swarming pro- 
clivities and the black color, which American beekeepers do 
not fancy. Queen breeders have distinguished other races, 
which are not distinct from the Carniolan, among which are 
the Banat (Banater) race, of recent importation into America, 
and the Dalmatian which appeared in American literature 
in the eighties. The names of other provinces have been 
used as trade names for different breeders. 

African races. 

While several races of bees have been distinguished from 
Africa, in addition to the Egyptian previously discussed, 
very little information is at hand concerning these bees in 
the hands of beekeepers. A yellow race, described as Apis 
adonsoni, is found in parts of Africa, having the abdomen 
a darker reddish-yellow than the Egyptian. On the north 
coast of Africa is found a black bee, known among beekeepers 
as Tunisian, Punic or North African. This race extends 
well into the continent. The bees of this origin that have 
been tried in the United States are extremely cross, propo- 
lize excessively and winter badly. They are not now known 



Races of Bees 203 

to be present in the United States. A separate race of black 
bees is described from Madagascar and other islands and 
still another from Togoland. It is well known that honey- 
bees are abundant in parts of Africa and careful explorations 
would doubtless reveal many interesting facts concerning 
these bees. Onions 1 claims that in the South African race 
the unmated workers lay eggs which develop into female 
bees. As the continent of Africa becomes more settled by 
white men and as apiculture advances, we may expect some 
interesting additions to our knowledge of the African races 
of bees. 

Asiatic races. 

v. Buttel-Reepen (Apistica) places A. indica as a variety 
of A. mellifica. It is a smaller bee, which is said to bite 
rather than sting. It crosses with previously described 
races. Several sub-varieties are indicated. 

Chinese- Japanese. 

These bees are placed by v. Buttel-Reepen as sub-varieties 
of indica. The Chinese bee has a heavy coat of long dirty 
gray hair ; the Japanese bee lacks this. 

BEST RACE OF BEES 

To answer the question as to which race of bees is best 
is difficult. For comb-honey production, the German, 
Carniolan and Caucasian races have the advantage of capping 
the honey white but the German bees are especially subject 
to European foul brood, Carniolans swarm excessively 
(especially in comb-honey production) and Caucasians 
propolize badly. Without going further into the merits 
and demerits of the various races, it may be as well to give 
the almost unanimous verdict of American beekeepers, 

1 Onions, G. W., 1912. South African "fertile worker-bees." Agricul- 
tural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope, May. See also Van Warmelo 
in the same journal, 1913. 



204 Beekeeping 

which is in favor of the Italian race. It is probably true 
that the tests made cannot be considered as free from prej- 
udice but the decision was made years ago and no special 
reason has been presented for changing it. Since this race 
became popular it has been carefully bred and it is easier 
to get good stock of this race than of any other in the United 
States. It was the first race brought to this country in the 
effort to improve on the early introduced black bees and 
proved so vastly superior that it soon took a firm hold on 
American beekeepers. It is doubtful whether any other 
race will be accepted as better or even as good by the ma- 
jority of beekeepers and certainly no markedly better race 
has been tried in this country. 



CHAPTER X 

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE UNITED 

STATES 

Before discussing the different methods of manipulating 
bees in the successful production of honey, it may be help- 
ful to point out some of the fundamental differences found 
between various parts of the United States in regard to the 
sources of honey and in climatic conditions, which influence 
the choice of the proper system of manipulation. In the 
American literature on beekeeping, these differences are 
frequently mentioned and the word " locality" in tHe bee- 
keeper's vocabulary has come to be used as an all-inclusive 
argument or excuse for his particular practice and often 
partially to cover his ignorance of the actual reasons for 
differences observed. This term " locality" is the subject 
of the present chapter. As will be shown later, two apiaries 
but a few miles apart may give quite different results, not 
only in the amount or source of crops but in the effect of 
certain manipulations, and the facts here presented help 
to explain these differences. Since migratory beekeeping is 
practiced only between two unlike regions, this subject is 
also discussed in the present chapter. 

The system of manipulation to be followed and the manner 
in which honey may best be prepared for market depend on 
the color and quality of the honey and perhaps especially 
on the length and intensity of the nectar-flow. While the 
chief sources of honey are discussed in another chapter, it 
may be helpful here to present in outline the combination 
of floral and climatic conditions which so strongly influences 

205 



206 Beekeeping 

the business of honey-production and guides the beekeeper 
in choosing suitable locations for his apiaries. 

Variation in intensity of honey-flows. 

In general, the nectar-flows increase in rapidity or intensity 
as one goes northward and with this rapidity in the honey- 
flow usually comes a shortening of the period during which 
nectar is secreted. As a rule, the northern honeys are lighter 
in color, although there are many exceptions which will be 
pointed out later. In the more northern localities, the 
beginning and end of the honey-flows are usually sharply 
marked, while in the South there is a gradual increase in the 
honey-flow to the maximum .and a correspondingly gradual 
cessation of the honey-flow. 

Variation in the value of plants. 

There is a striking difference in the value, from a beekeep- 
er's standpoint, of plants according to locality, and the causes 
of these phenomena are in most cases not understood. A 
few of the more striking examples will serve to illustrate 
this variation. White clover yields nectar most abundantly 
in the northern range of this plant, while farther south the 
flow of nectar from this plant is less intense and the honey is 
often somewhat darker. Alfalfa yields nectar freely in 
the irrigated districts of the West, but is usually of no value 
to the beekeeper east of the Mississippi River. Buck- 
wheat is the source of large honey crops in parts of southern 
New York and Pennsylvania, while in Indiana and Illinois 
it secretes much less nectar, again increasing in value to the 
beekeeper in Michigan. Exceptions to these general state- 
ments sometimes arise because of abnormal climatic condi- 
tions. For example, a heavy honey-flow from alfalfa was 
recently obtained in the vicinity of Syracuse, New York. 
This was probably not due to the plants becoming accli- 
mated but occurred in a dry season. In some seasons white 
clover yields well much farther south than the limits pre- 
viously given. Other examples are given later. 



Regional Differences within the United States 207 

BEEKEEPING KEGIONS 

It helps to an understanding of the differences in the prac- 
tices of beekeepers in various parts of the United States if 
we divide the country into honey regions. This, as any 
experienced beekeeper will at once recognize, is a more or 
less arbitrary division and many exceptions might be cited 
to the following classification. In the main, however, the 
nature of the honey-flows justifies such an arrangement, and 
this plan is still more permissible if we consider the systems 
of manipulation found most advantageous by beekeepers. 
These regions may first be divided into general and restricted, 
depending chiefly on their area. The general regions are 
those not only of considerable extent, but of greater influence 
on the choice of manipulations. 

General regions. 

These are five in number and the division is based on 
differences in climatic conditions found in the United States. 
The placing of the sage region in the rank of a general re- 
gion is justified mainly by the size of the crops obtained 
there in favorable seasons. 

(1) The white clover region includes eastern Canada, the 
New England States, except along the coast, and a belt along 
the northern United States as far west as the Dakotas. 
It is limited to the west by the arid region and again reap- 
pears on the Pacific coast, both in the United States and 
Canada. The southern boundary is approximately Mason 
and Dixon's line and the Ohio River. In this region, in addi- 
tion to white clover, alsike clover, sweet clover, basswood, 
tulip poplar and locust contribute to the honey crops and, 
with the exception of that from tulip poplar, the honeys 
from these sources are light in color. Alsike clover is steadily 
increasing in importance with its wider planting for forage, 
while basswood is rapidly disappearing because of the exten- 
sive cutting of this tree for lumber. In this region the 
honey-flows are rapid and relatively short and the main 



208 Beekeeping 

honey-flow is usually preceded by a honey-flow from spring 
flowers (fruit bloom, dandelion) followed by a dearth. In 
the more northern localities this interval is brief or entirely 
absent. After the main honey-flow there is usually a period 
when no nectar is available, followed again by a late summer 
or fall honey-flow (buckwheat, asters, goldenrod or Spanish 
needle, according to locality). This region is suitable for 
comb-honey production better than any other part of the 
United States, on account of the intensity of the honey-flows 
and the light color of most of the honeys. The necessity 
for a rapid building up of colonies in the spring and the diffi- 
culty of swarm control make necessary special systems of 
manipulation in this region. The wintering problem is 
naturally most acute here also. Most of the American 
literature on beekeeping in both books and journals is based 
on systems applicable to the white clover region. The 
honeys of this region are in great demand, probably because 
the honey-consuming public is better educated to the flavors 
obtained here. In this region are thousands of beekeepers 
with only a few colonies, although the number of specialists 
is increasing satisfactorily. 

(2) The alfalfa region is located in the West, where this plant 
is chiefly grown for forage. Alfalfa is at its best as a nectar- 
producing plant under irrigation and usually at high alti- 
tudes. Colorado, Utah and Idaho are now the largest 
producing States in this region. Sweet clover is also an 
important contributor to the nectar supply in some sections. 
The honey of this region is usually of fine flavor and light 
in color, but alfalfa honey quickly begins to granulate and 
in consequence would seem best adapted to extracting. 
The honey-flow is not so rapid as in the white clover region, 
which also makes this region less favorable for comb-honey 
production. However, many beekeepers of this region 
produce comb-honey extensively. The system of manip- 
ulation is different from that in the white clover region 
because the honey-flows are usually longer and swarming 
is less difficult to control. The number of honey-flows de- 



Regional Differences within the United States 209 

pends on the number of crops of alfalfa that are harvested 
in a season. This region is steadily increasing in importance, 
and a market is rapidly being built up for alfalfa honey. 
In this region, honey-production is conducted chiefly by 
extensive beekeepers. 

(3) The south-eastern region, which varies greatly in the 
sources of honey throughout its extent, and which is an 
area of abundant rainfall, lies south of the white clover 
region and extends west to eastern Texas. The various 
rather distinct subdivisions of this territory might well be 
placed among the restricted honey regions, except that 
certain things in common in the honey-flows make the same 
type of manipulations necessary. Among the important 
plants of this district are sourwood, cotton, tulip poplar, 
tupelo, manchineel, mangrove, titi, palmettos, citrus trees, 
gallberry and partridge pea, with nectar from clovers in 
some sections in favorable seasons. Sweet clover is valu- 
able in some localities. Most of the honeys are amber, 
and the chief characteristic of this region is a succession of 
honey-flows, often intergrading. The honey-flows are usually 
not rapid. This region is therefore best adapted to extracted- 
honey production. Swarming is much less troublesome 
than in the North. Beekeeping is developing in this region, 
but there is opportunity for many more beekeepers, there 
being now relatively few who rank as professionals. Colonies 
of bees may usually be bought at low prices in box-hives. 
This region is perhaps the best in the United States for 
commercial queen-rearing, except in parts of Florida where 
dragon flies are troublesome. 

The diversity of conditions in this region is well shown 
in the accompanying map (Fig. 95), which was prepared by 
E. G. Baldwin, De Land, Florida, who has studied the bee- 
keeping possibilities of his State quite thoroughly. It 
will be seen that the sources of nectar are quite distinct 
geographically. The geographical position of this State 
and the diversity of soil and climatic conditions strongly 
influence the growth of the honey plants. In this State 



210 



Beekeeping 



two localities only a few miles apart may be quite unlike, 
when viewed from the standpoint of the beekeeper. This is 
also true in many other parts of the United States. 

(4) The semi-arid region of the south-west is located chiefly 
in the arid and semi-arid parts of Texas and Arizona and 
here too the honey plants are of somewhat restricted dis- 
tribution. Among 
the plants which 
are important to 
the beekeeper are 
mesquite, horse- 
mint, catclaw, 
huisache and 
guajilla. Most of 
the honey pro- 
duced in this 
region is ex- 
tracted, although 
a large number 
of beekeepers pro- 
duce bulk comb- 
honey (chunk 
honey), cut from 
large combs (with- 
out sections) and placed in cans in which extracted-honey 
has been poured to fill the spaces. Such honey is usually 
sold locally. Beekeeping in this region is largely in the 
hands of professional beekeepers. 

(5) The sage region is confined to the canons of southern 
California and should be considered a restricted region 
except for the fact that sage honey wields so important an 
influence on the honey market that the region may justly 
be placed among those of major importance. The various 
sages are all heavy yielders under favorable conditions and 
there is usually no other honey source of importance where 
this honey is produced. The influence of rainfall on the 
honey crop of this region is discussed in the chapter on honey 




Fig. 95. — Map of Florida, 
showing distribution of 
honey plants. 



Regional Differences within the United States 211 

sources. If the crops of sage honey were uniformly heavy, 
this would be an ideal region for comb-honey production, 
for sage honey is mild in flavor, water-white and does not 
easily granulate. However, successful comb-honey pro- 
duction necessitates a rapid flow, which often fails to appear 
in this region and most of the honey is extracted. Here too 
there are many professional beekeepers, although a consid- 
erable number are not modern in their methods of manipu- 
lation and equipment. 

In addition to the geographical limits ascribed to these 
main regions, other localities situated outside the prescribed 
boundaries might well be included with certain of the gen- 
eral regions in discussing the type of flow. For example, 
California, north of the sage region, is comparable with the 
South, and along the Pacific coast to the north there are 
localities which belong to the white clover region. 

Restricted regions. 

In addition to the more general divisions named, there 
are other localities with special advantages for the beekeeper, 
but more limited in extent, which lie within the boundaries 
of the main divisions. As previously mentioned, the south- 
eastern region is virtually composed of a number of such 
restricted regions. The list here given will be recognized 
as incomplete and is intended merely as a suggestion. Many 
more restricted regions will be recognized from the discus- 
sion of the sources of nectar. Among the more important 
limited regions may be mentioned those in which the fol- 
lowing plants secrete nectar. 

(1) Buckwheat. — The honey of this plant is dark and of 
strong flavor, suitable chiefly for manufacturing purposes. 
The variation in the secretion of nectar from buckwheat 
has been mentioned. 

(2) Sumac. — Valuable locally in New England. Another 
species of the same genus yields a surplus in limited areas 
in Georgia. 

(3) Spanish needle (numerous species) . — Heavy yielders 



212 Beekeeping 

of amber honey in the autumn in swamps. Among the best- 
known regions in which these plants are of value may be 
mentioned the lower Delaware River and Illinois River 
valleys and the Kankakee swamp. 

(4) Willowherb. — Important in northern Michigan in 
burned over forest areas. 

(5) Sweet clover. — In some sections, especially in lime- 
stone regions, this plant is exceptionally abundant and is the 
source of large crops of honey of a slightly greenish color. 
It is especially valuable in northern Kentucky and southern 
Indiana. 

(6) Blue thistle. — ■ Important in the Shenandoah valley. 

(7) Raspberry. — ■ Northern Michigan where the forests 
have been burned over and in parts of New York. 

(8) Beans. — ■ In southern California, where beans of 
various kinds are grown in great quantity, beekeepers find 
it profitable to move their apiaries to the bean fields after 
the sage honey-flow. The honey is white, of excellent flavor 
and granulates quickly. 

(9) Heartsease. — ■ Mississippi valley. A heavy yielder 
of nectar in late summer. 

Variation within a region. 

It must not be understood that the territory within either 
a general or a restricted region as here defined is equally 
good throughout. The cutting of forests, the extensive 
cultivation of some plant which restricts the growth of 
honey plants, local differences in soil or drainage, the pres- 
ence of large towns and a multitude of other factors may so 
reduce the number of individual honey plants where they 
would normally grow as to make extensive beekeeping un- 
profitable. On the other hand, the cutting of forests may 
make a region better by allowing a honey plant to spread 
(e.g. willowherb) or the planting of some nectar-yielding 
species, either under cultivation (e.g. alsike clover, alfalfa) 
or in waste places (e.g. sweet clover), may greatly increase 
the value of a region to the beekeeper. In fact, the entire 



Regional Differences within the United States 213 

alfalfa region is a man-made honey region. These factors, 
many of which are due to human interference with the natural 
environment, must be considered in choosing locations of 
apiaries and in manipulating colonies. 

Climatic influences may change an area from year to 
year. A lack of sufficient rainfall, for example, may kill 
white clover in certain areas and not in others. This occurred 
during 1914, when a severe drought killed clover over much 
of Illinois, while an abundance of rain fell in northern por- 
tions of the State, there being marked differences in localities 
only a few miles apart. 

DISTKIBUTION OF BEES IN THE UNITED STATES 

The relative importance of the various honey regions is 
indicated by the number of colonies of bees found in each 
one, although care must be exercised in examining these 
data to avoid misinterpretation. The only source of informa- 
tion on this subject is the United States Census, and the 
data from this source are not complete. However, while 
the number of colonies reported is far too low, it may per- 
haps be assumed that approximately the same percentage 
is omitted throughout the United States. The accompany- 
ing map (Fig. 96) was prepared in the Bureau of Crop Esti- 
mates of the Department of Agriculture from data furnished 
by the Census of 1910 and the author is indebted to this 
Bureau for permission to use it here. In this map will be 
found a dot for each county where bees are kept, the size 
of the dot being proportionate to the number of colonies 
reported. 

In the white clover region, it is evident that the more 
northern localities are most thoroughly stocked with bees. 
In the alfalfa region bees are less abundant, and this is true 
also in the sage region. The amount of honey produced in 
these regions is far below that of the moist regions of the 
country, but the honey goes to market in large shipments, 
because of the larger number of specialist beekeepers, and 



214 



Beekeeping 







Regional Differences within the United States 215 

as a result these crops are important in determining the 
wholesale price of honey. 

The enormous number of colonies in the southern States 
is a surprise. In the fifteen States usually included in the 
division of southern States are found forty-five per cent of all 
the colonies in the United States. In this region the box- 
hive and the farmer-b'eekeeper are still found in large num- 
bers, there being few specialists except in Texas. Because 
the industry has not developed on modern lines, most of 
the honey from the South does not reach the larger centers 
of distribution, and it therefore has little influence on the 
wholesale honey markets. The number of colonies of bees 
found in the South is proof of the wonderful opportunities 
for the development of the industry, for many of these colo- 
nies are given no attention. As one beekeeper expresses 
it, these bees would die, if they could, to escape the ill-treat- 
ment to which they are subjected, but the environment is 
so favorable that they increase in spite of mismanagement. 

Attention should also be called to the larger number of 
colonies in southern New York and northern Pennsylvania, 
where buckwheat is plentiful. The other restricted honey 
regions seem to have less influence on the number of colonies. 

This map will repay considerable study in connection 
with other phases of beekeeping. To one familiar with 
the distribution of the diseases of the brood of bees in the 
United States x it is clear that there has been a severe loss 
from this cause, as indicated by the smaller dots in regions 
where diseases are most prevalent. New England was 
formerly well stocked with bees, but many colonies have been 
destroyed by disease. Certain areas in Pennsylvania, Ohio 
and Indiana, where disease is abundant, are inadequately 
provided with bees. One important reason for the larger 
number of colonies in the South is probably the scarcity of 



1 Phillips, E. F., 1911. The occurrence of bee diseases in the United 
States (Preliminary report). Circular No. 138, Bureau of Entomology, 
25 pp. 



216 Beekeeping 

MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING 

By this expression beekeepers designate the moving of 
apiaries from place to place during a single summer to take 
advantage of two or more honey-flows which do not occur 
in a single locality. This has been practiced since ancient 
times, and most extensive beekeepers cherish the hope that 
some day the subject may be sufficiently understood so 
that they may move their bees several times a season and 
thereby keep them working almost all the year. Some 
elaborate plans have been made for moving bees from south 
to north as the seasons advance, but most of the trials have 
been failures. Since success in beekeeping depends on an 
intimate knowledge of the honey sources of the locality and 
of the best manipulations to obtain maximum crops, such 
migratory beekeeping would necessitate detailed knowledge 
of many sections, so that the beekeeper may know when 
and where to move his colonies to advantage. 

The Mississippi River has long been considered an ideal 
avenue for transporting colonies in migratory beekeeping, 
especially since there is no better way to ship colonies than 
by boat. It has been proposed that the beekeeper place 
his apiary on a flatboat in the South in early spring and 
move northward by night, allowing his bees to gather nectar 
by day, and following the season as it extends northward. 
This plan so well illustrates the limitations of migratory 
beekeeping that it may be critically examined. One of the 
chief difficulties is the fact that the beekeeper must know 
just where to anchor after each move so that his bees will 
be in range of the best forage and this would involve too 
careful a study of the valley to make the plan practical. 
This objection might be overcome but there is a more funda- 
mental difficulty which has not been sufficiently considered 
by those who have cherished this dream. If one species 
of plant furnished the main nectar-flow throughout the 
Mississippi valley, the beekeeper could move northward 
to prolong the gathering period, but this is not the case. 



Regional Differences within the United States 217 

There are many plants which furnish nectar in the various 
portions in the valley and if the apiary were moved 
northward the bees often would leave behind them a honey- 
flow from another source. If migratory beekeeping from 
south to north and then back south with the closing season 
proves successful it will probably be within the nectar-secret- 
ing area of a single species of plant or perhaps of two species, 
one for each direction of the journey. The Mississippi River 
plan was tried several years ago on a rather extensive scale 
without success. 

The experiment of moving an apiary south for the winter 
for the purpose of making increase has recently been tried. 
If one is raising bees for sale and has a heavy demand for 
colonies that may pay but the chances of success in following 
this plan for honey-production are small. 

The limitations of migratory beekeeping, in so far as 
present successes indicate them, have not been previously 
pointed out. They are approximately as follows : The 
movement of bees must not be from one general region to 
another, as from the white clover region to the alfalfa region, 
but from a location where the flora is that of the general 
region to a restricted region where the honey-flow comes at a 
different time, usually later. For example, it has been found 
profitable to practice the following plans in migratory bee- 
keeping : (1) from white clover to sweet clover, buckwheat, 
Spanish needle or heartsease, (2) from sage to bean or (3) 
from one of the restricted regions in the South to another. 
As previously mentioned, the honey-flow at the temporary 
out-apiary usually comes after the main honey-flow at the 
permanent apiary. In most such cases, the conditions 
demand the production of extracted-honey, as comb-honey 
production and migratory beekeeping are not well suited 
to each other. 

In considering the possibility of migratory beekeeping 
it must be decided whether it is desirable to move the bees 
or simply the beekeeper. In other words, if the trip is a 
long one involving considerable expense and danger of loss 



218 Beekeeping 

in moving a large number of colonies, it may be cheaper or 
easier for the beekeeper to own two or more lots of bees and 
supplies. The expense of transportation and the danger 
involved are probably the factors which determine the feasi- 
bility of moving from south to north or from sage in Cali- 
fornia to alfalfa in Utah or Colorado. In the South, espe- 
cially where bees can be purchased at a low price, it would 
not seem profitable to move apiaries over long distances. 
The shipping of bees in wire- cloth cages may in the future 
remove the present limitations. 

It would certainly seem that a northern beekeeper is 
not embracing all his opportunities if he quits work when his 
bees can no longer get nectar, while there are still hundreds 
of places in the South or even in the tropics where he might 
maintain apiaries with profit in the winter. When it is 
recalled that the professional beekeeper is a relatively new 
factor in beekeeping, it may still be expected that the future 
development of the industry will show an increase in migra- 
tory beekeeping, or at least in migratory beekeepers. 

OVERSTOCKING 

The bugbear of the specialist beekeeper is the fear that he 
will overstock his localities, that is, place in each apiary so 
many colonies that there will not be enough nectar available 
to permit the colonies to store approximately the maximum 
profitable surplus. Since there are few places in the United 
States that are now overstocked, this subject worries the 
beekeeper more than the facts warrant. Some beekeepers 
have found it practical to keep several hundred colonies in 
one apiary. E. W. Alexander, Delanson, New York, found 
it more profitable, in an exceptionally good buckwheat 
region, to keep over 700 colonies in one yard than to establish 
out-apiaries. In the South and West large apiaries are not 
infrequent. 

While it is desirable to keep bees in as few places as possi- 
ble to avoid duplication of apparatus and time lost in trans- 



Regional Differences within the United States 219 

portation, there is another factor to be considered. The 
size of an apiary should be determined chiefly by the number 
of colonies that the beekeeper can manipulate in a single day 
during the honey-flow. If he finds that he can usually care 
for seventy-five colonies in a day under his system of manage- 
ment, then that number is ideal for his apiaries. He can 
then arrange his out-apiaries so that each will receive a 
visit as frequently as the conditions demand. The amount 
of work that can be done in a day will increase with experi- 
ence and the out-apiaries correspondingly may be increased 
in size, for they should be large enough to furnish a full 
day's work, unless there is some means of rapid transporta- 
tion available. With modern transportation facilities the 
distance to out-yards is of less importance than formerly 
and many beekeepers now have motor trucks to carry an 
extracting outfit and other apparatus and supplies from one 
apiary to another. Considering the day's work as the deter- 
mining factor in the size of the apiary, the out-apiaries may 
be more numerous and closer together than would be the case 
if each yard were increased to the maximum. In the present 
undeveloped condition of the beekeeping industry and with 
so many localities almost untouched by bees, it is not wise 
to run any risk of overstocking. The location of out- 
apiaries should be determined by the available forage, the 
minimum distance between them usually being determined 
by the distance that bees can fly. 

DADANT OUT-APIARIES 

To illustrate the problem which confronts the beekeeper 
in the establishment of out-apiaries there is here reproduced 
a map (Fig. 97), made from one by C. P. Dadant, Hamilton, 
Illinois, of the apiaries near his home in 1891. He then 
owned the Home, Sherwood, Villemain and Sack apiaries, 
the other four shown being apiaries of other beekeepers. 
All of these are located on land sloping toward the Mississippi 
River. The Sherwood apiary was the best, giving crops in 



220 



Beekeeping 



the spring and fall. The Villemain apiary appears to have 
been in the poorest location, the range of the bees being 
restricted by the river, but it was near the only basswood 
grove in the country and the bees gathered honey in the fall 
from the islands. The Sack apiary seems to have been too 

near other apiaries but was 
actually second only to the 
Sherwood yard. The bees 
did not work more than a 
mile along the bluff but went 
three miles to the river, 
having the bottom lands 
covered with fall flowers 
within their range of flight. 
They were separated from 
the adj acent apiaries by hills 
and timber. The two small 
circles show sites of former 
apiaries, used before the 
Sherwood apiary was estab- 
lished. The bees in the 
home apiary were only a 
mile and a half from abun- 
dant pasturage on an island 
but did not reach it, although 
they sometimes went two 
miles or more in another di- 
rection. 

This description of conditions in 1891 l may not represent 
the condition of the Dadant apiaries to-day. The map, 
however, shows the locations decided upon in that region by 
an experienced beekeeper who had kept bees in that district 
for twenty years. It shows that distance from one apiary 
to the next is not the sole consideration but that contour 
of the land, timber tracts and other barriers must be taken 




Fig. 97. — Map showing distribution 
of Dadant apiaries, Hamilton, 111. 



1 Dadant, C. P., 1891. Arrangement of out-apiaries. 
Bee Culture, XIX, pp. 60-61. 



Gleanings in 



Regional Differences within the United States 221 

into account. Similar maps and descriptions of out-apiaries 
appeared in the same journal at about the same time, one 
of the apiaries of E. France, Platteville, Wisconsin, and 
another from A. E. Manum, Bristol, Vermont. The effect 
of contour of the land is especially well illustrated in the 
Manum map. It would probably profit any extensive bee- 
keeper who has several out-apiaries to make a similar map 
of his region, especially if he includes the honey sources. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE FIRST STEPS IN BEEKEEPING 

Many persons begin beekeeping accidentally. The in- 
terest of many of the present beekeepers in the honeybee 
has first been aroused by a swarm passing over the premises 
or perhaps lighting on a tree near by. The desire not to allow 
anything to go to waste or not to allow a valuable article to 
elude him, coupled perhaps with a dare-devil impulse to 
risk a combat, has induced many a man or woman to attempt 
to hive the stray swarm. Or perhaps there is a temptation 
to exhibit one's prowess before the other members of the 
family. Having hived the swarm in a box or barrel with 
no loss of life or limb — and bees are never easier to handle 
than when swarming — it is by easy steps that one goes on 
until an attack of what is commonly known as " bee-fever" 
has developed, from which recovery seems hopeless. If a 
swarm is caught and put into a box, the owner should obtain 
a modern hive as soon as practical and lodge his new posses- 
sion in a home where they may be manipulated. The neces- 
sary equipment is discussed in Chapter II. 

Purchase of colonies. 

There are those, however, who decide to begin beekeeping 
without this accidental impulse. The desirability of begin- 
ning on a small scale may be again emphasized here. Colonies 
should if possible always be purchased near at hand to pre- 
vent the loss which may follow, especially if colonies must 
be transported by inexperienced persons. The further 
advantage in this procedure is that the former owner may 
usually be induced to assist in the moving and he will also 

222 



The First Steps in Beekeeping 223 

prove helpful in the early days with the bees. It is best 
to have the bees already housed in the hive which is to be 
adopted but if this is not possible then colonies in any hive 
or in boxes or barrels may be purchased and transferred 
(p. 245). Transferring is a difficult operation for a novice, 
in fact it is not relished by an experienced beekeeper, and is 
to be avoided. Early in the summer is usually the best 
time for making the start, although the price charged for 
colonies is usually higher at that season. There is less 
opportunity for making such mistakes in management as 
will result in loss of bees during the first few months of 
ownership if these come during the summer. It matters 
little what race or strain of bees is obtained at the beginning 
except that it is desirable to avoid bees with too great a 
percentage of black blood in them, such bees being diffi- 
cult to manipulate. After the apiary is established any 
desired race may be obtained by removing the queens and 
replacing them with mated queens purchased from com- 
mercial queen breeders. If these are introduced to replace 
the old queens of the colonies, the progeny of the new queens 
will rapidly replace the offspring of the discarded ones as 
they die from natural causes. 

Purchase of bees to be shipped from a distance. 

Another method of buying bees which is growing in favor 
is to buy them by weight, without frames. Bees are now 
easily shipped in cages specially constructed for the purpose, 
even though the journey require several days. By this 
method the possibility of carrying some brood disease is 
obviated and there is less likelihood of damage to the bees 
by the breaking or melting of combs or by suffocation during 
the journey. Nuclei or small colonies with frames may also 
be shipped a considerable distance. These will usually 
build up to full colonies during the season if bought early, 
but of course surplus honey can scarcely be expected the 
first year from such a small colony. Still another plan is to 
buy an empty hive and leave it with some beekeeper so 



224 Beekeeping 

that a swarm may be hived in it, after which it is removed 
to the desired location. 

Requirements in purchased colonies. 

If there is opportunity to examine the colonies before 
purchasing them, there are several important things which 
should be insisted upon : (1) get as little drone comb or 
crooked or defective comb as possible ; (2) see that the 
colony is free from disease (p. 397) ; (3) the colony should 
be provided with plenty of honey and (4) the amount of 
brood should be adequate for the time of year. It is perhaps 
asking too much of the beginner to expect him to determine 
whether disease is present in colonies purchased. In many 
states and counties there are official apiary inspectors whose 
duty it is to give advice on the subject of disease and these 
men may be asked to assist in this work. At any rate, 
even the novice can tell whether there is any dead or dis- 
colored brood and it is at least safe not to accept colonies 
in which any discolored brood is found, normal brood being 
pearly white. Formerly the sale of bees was believed to 
bring ill-luck and the customary way to acquire colonies 
was to go at night to the apiary and after the removal of 
the colony, to leave coins to the value of the bees on an 
adjacent hive. The possibility of an insufficient pile of 
coins or perhaps none at all is probably a factor in causing 
modern beekeepers to prefer to sell bees according to pres- 
ent-day methods. The beginner can scarcely be advised 
to adopt the ancient manner, for the custom might be found 
faulty when explained to a magistrate. 

How to learn beekeeping. 

To acquire skill in manipulating bees and to learn the 
proper management of the apiary so as to obtain maximum 
results, the best method is to spend some time in the apiary 
of an experienced beekeeper. If one contemplates making 
beekeeping an important part of the occupation, this is 
especially to be desired. It is usually possible to arrange 



The First Steps in Beekeeping 225 

for employment at a small wage in the apiary of a specialist 
for a season. Not all extensive beekeepers, however, 
manipulate their bees well and many of them fail to get the 
maximum returns through faulty systems, especially in 
comb-honey production, but after some experience in such 
an apiary the prospective beekeeper is better able to read 
the details of manipulations understandingly, and he can 
correct in his own practice the mistakes which may have 
been taught him by his teacher. 

Value of reading. 

The many books on bees all have points of merit and 
reading the various journals devoted to beekeeping is to be 
commended. Reading alone does not make a beekeeper. 
The " book-beekeeper " may be well informed concerning 
the behavior of bees and may know the different systems of 
management so that he can discuss them in detail, but only 
by practice do these things become an actual part of his 
beekeeping equipment. 

Merits of beekeeping courses. 

A good way to learn beekeeping is to attend some school 
where a thorough course in this subject is given. Until 
recently beekeeping was not included in the work of the 
agricultural colleges in the United States, but interest is 
now being aroused in this work and it is spreading in a 
manner to give deep satisfaction to those interested in the 
development of the industry. In the apiary of an experi- 
enced beekeeper, the beginner perhaps gets more personal 
attention than he does in a class, but usually in the rush of 
honey-production, the theoretical side of the work is neg- 
lected and frequently the beekeeper is not able to offer much 
help to his student on such subjects. Consequently when he 
begins to keep bees for himself, he may find local conditions 
quite unlike those in the apiary in which he worked and, 
not knowing the fundamental facts about bees, he may be 
at a loss to know what to do. In a regular course of study, 

Q 



226 Beekeeping 

the proper emphasis may be placed on the various subjects, 
although naturally there is less opportunity for practice 
with the bees. The ideal plan is to take the prescribed 
course and then spend the following summer in the apiary 
of the best beekeeper available. The student is then able 
to understand more clearly what he sees and hears and is 
better able to recognize and perhaps mentally to condemn 
the little peculiarities in practice which one encounters 
occasionally in the manipulations of practical beekeepers. 
If the teaching of beekeeping is conducted wisely, it should 
result not only in increased knowledge of bees, but in the 
training of more professional beekeepers. 

Beginner's outfit. 

It is only with experience that one is able to judge of the 
comparative merits of different hives and other equipment, 
but the beginner usually desires definite information con- 
cerning the equipment which should be purchased. The 
giving of such advice is attended with some risk, for one 
hesitates to advise an equipment which may be discarded 
when the beekeeper becomes more familiar with the business. 
In the following lists, the choice is made on the basis of the 
equipment which is preferred by the majority of good bee- 
keepers and not alone on the author's personal preferences. 

General equipment : — 

Bee veil. 

Smoker — medium size. 

Gloves (for the beginner only). 

Some kind of hive tool — a screwdriver will answer. 

For each colony : — 

Bottom board of I inch material. 

10-frame Langstroth hive — preferably single-walled. 

Self-spacing frames, punched for wiring. 

Medium brood foundation, 1| lb. for each hive body. 

Telescope cover. 



The First Steps in Beekeeping 227 

For comb-honey production (minimum) : — 

3 supers for 10-frame hive (if possible one made up for sample). 

The 4j inches square section, If inches wide, is usually 

preferred. The purchase of only one super to the colony is 

to be condemned. 
Thin foundation, 2 oz. to super. For the beginner the use 

of small starters of foundation is sometimes preferable. 

If full sheets are used, 8 oz. to the super should be provided. 

For extracted-honey production : — 

2 extra hive bodies identical with those used in brood chamber, 

with full sheets of comb-foundation (see p. 28 concerning 

spacing devices in surplus chambers). 
1 2-frame non-reversible extractor. 
1 Bingham uncapping knife. 

For bulk comb-honey production : — 

3 10-frame supers with shallow extracting frames. 
| lb. thin-super foundation for each super. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE APIARY SITE 

In the establishment of a commercial apiary, the chief 
requisite is proximity to the sources of nectar. To fulfill 
this, it is essential that the honey resources of the region be 
studied carefully. While it is possible to keep bees in almost 
all of the habitable parts of the United States, it is not every- 
where profitable to practice extensive beekeeping, so that if 
one contemplates making honey- production a major portion 
of his business, it is best to go to the best available location 
rather than to struggle along in a mediocre locality. A 
second requisite is ease of transportation to the apiary and 
to market. 

Apiary grounds. 

In the North, a plot of ground sloping to the south or 
east is usually preferable and in any region it is advisable 
to face the apiary so as to protect the entrances of the hives 
from the prevailing winds. If the contour of the land or a 
near-by forest does not afford protection from the wind, a 
windbreak may be planted. A row of evergreens is efficient 
in the North and is serviceable in winter when it is most 
needed. A solid fence or building is less desirable, since 
such a windbreak, instead of breaking the force of the wind, 
often simply deflects the currents into the midst of the apiary 
with disastrous results. In moist regions, a slope is desirable 
for drainage. The hives should be so placed that they 
receive sunlight in the early morning. This is helpful in 
winter and perhaps equally so in summer as it starts the 
bees to the field earlier, so that they get the nectar from 

228 



The Apiary Site 229 

plants which furnish it only in the mornings. If possible, 
the apiary should not be near the public road and should 
be situated where the bees will not prove a nuisance to 
passers-by or sting live-stock. If the only convenient loca- 
tion is near the road, the line of flight of the bees may be 
deflected upwards by a high hedge or a solid fence, for after 
they fly over such an obstruction they will keep above the line 
of travel on the road and will not molest teams or pedestrians. 
This is an important consideration as bees sometimes sting 
horses fatally. The apiary should preferably be located 
away from the clothes-drying yard so that they will not spot 
the clothes with their feces. This applies especially in the 
North, and this objection may largely be overcome by re- 
moving the cellar-wintered bees when no clothes are to 
be hung out. Perhaps it would be more in keeping with the 
usual practice to advise that no clothes be hung out just 
after the bees have been placed on their summer stands. 
The hives should, if practicable, occupy the higher ground 
of the plot chosen for the apiary, so that in carrying heavy 
supers to the apiary house the load will be carried downhill 
and the empty supers uphill. Such an arrangement will 
materially reduce the labor in a commercial apiary. 

Exposure to the sun. 

While exposure to the sun is to be advised in the early 
morning, it is often well to protect the hives from the sun 
in the middle of the day, so that the bees will not hang 
out in front of the hive and to prevent the melting down of 
combs. On the other hand, too dense a shade is not advan- 
tageous and usually it is not best to locate an apiary in woods. 
To provide shade, the hives may be placed in two rows under 
a shed or arbor with the hive entrances to the outside (Fig. 
98). Such sheds usually run north and south, but in hot, 
dry countries an east and west direction is sometimes better. 
In temperate climates, sheds are not in favor, but many 
beekeepers use shade-boards, so constructed that they 
extend about a foot in all directions from the hive except to 



230 



Beekeeping 



the north. These must be held in place by a heavy weight 
and are rather objectionable because they have to be re- 
moved each time the colony is manipulated. 

As the extreme of protection from the sun's rays may be 
mentioned the house apiary, in which the entrances to the 
hives are through holes in the wall of a specially constructed 
house. Such arrangements meet with little favor among 
American beekeepers because of the difficulty in manipulat- 
ing the colonies inside the house. In Europe, however, the 

beekeepers often 
construct elabo- 
rately designed 
and decorated 
house apiaries 
(Fig. 8) in which 
an American cofn- 
mercial bee- 
keeper would find 
himself seriously 
hindered. 




Fig. 



Apiary in the West, shaded by thatched 
shed. 



Care of the apiary 
grounds. 

The ground on 
which the hives 
are located should be smooth so that a wheelbarrow or cart 
may be utilized in carrying supplies or honey. This is also 
desirable if a lawnmower is used to keep grass and weeds from 
obstructing the entrances. High grass about the entrances 
is a hindrance to the bees on returning to the hive and 
should be avoided. Few commercial beekeepers find time 
to use a lawnmower during the rush season, but prefer to 
lay boards in front of the hive or to kill the grass with 
salt. It is sometimes convenient to pasture one or more 
sheep in the apiary inclosure. Raising the hives above the 
grass on high stands is another solution of the difficulty, but 
is not desirable in a heavy flow of honey, since bees often 



The Apiary Site 



231 



fall to the ground with their loads and since the stands may 
break down under the weight of honey. 

Arrangement of hives. 

The hives may be variously arranged according to the 
preference of the beekeeper. Each hive should be inclined 




Fig. 99. —Former apiary of the Bureau of Entomology, College Park, Md. 
The use of this apiary for experimental work accounts for the divergence 
in the height of the hives. The hives were here arranged singly about 
four feet apart. 



so that the entrance is about an inch lower than the back of 
the hive to prevent water from collecting on the bottom 
board. It is usually desirable that the hives be so placed 
that the beekeeper will not need to pass in front of the hive 
entrances as he goes about his work. The usual practice 
is to place hives in rows either close together on a slightly 
raised platform or singly on individual stands. The placing 
of hives in pairs on a single stand is also common. Where 
economy of space is a consideration, it is found advantageous 



232 Beekeeping 

to place hives close together in groups of four, back to back, 
two facing east and two west. This allows a space beside 
each hive for the beekeeper while manipulating and is greatly 
to be preferred to hives in long rows close together. Where 
space will permit, the placing of hives singly (Fig. 99) is 
preferable. 

Number of colonies in one apiary. 

The number of colonies which may profitably be kept in 
one apiary depends entirely on the nectar supply. In the 
white clover region, it is considered best to have not more 
than one hundred colonies in an apiary, with apiaries lo- 
cated at least two miles apart. This number can be in- 
creased in many localities. In the other general honey 
regions of the United States, it is usually profitable under 
favorable local conditions to keep from 200 to possibly 500 
colonies in one apiary. There are so many factors to con- 
sider in determining this point that no general rules may be 
laid down. Since this is not a question w T hich the beginner 
is called on to answer, it may be advised that the beekeeper 
decide each case individually from a study of the honey flora, 
the experience of other beekeepers and his own experience. 

Out-apiaries. 

In locating an apiary away from the central apiary, usually 
called an out-apiary or out-yard, easy transportation, espe- 
cially to the main apiary, is most desirable. It is also an 
advantage to have the out-yard, especially one in which 
comb-honey is produced, near to the home of some person 
who can hive swarms which may issue in spite of precautions 
taken, and to protect the colonies from depredation. If these 
things are not practical, it is better to have the bees where 
they are not easily seen from the highway. 

Conveniences less essential in out-apiaries. 

In establishing an out-apiary, the points previously men- 
tioned should be considered as desirable but not essential. 



The Apiary Site 233 

Since bees may be kept on roofs, in woods and in other places 
lacking many desirable features, it will be seen that it is not 
profitable to consider the desirable features too seriously. 
Another distinction should be made. If the out-apiary is 
permanent, it will pay better to plan the location thoroughly. 
However, many commercial beekeepers, especially those 
outside the white clover belt, find it well to change the loca- 
tions of their out-apiaries to meet changing conditions in 
the region and they therefore do not find it profitable to con- 
sider the conveniences in equipment and in apiary planning 
to any great extent. To the commercial beekeeper the 
only essentials are the things which bring the greatest 
return. The amateur can better afford to spend time cut- 
ting grass and arranging hive stands since his living does not 
depend on the crop and he has fewer colonies for which to 
plan. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE MANIPULATION OF BEES 

The work which the beekeeper does with his bees has for 
its object an increase in their productiveness. Bees gather 
nectar and pollen when they are available in response to 
their own instincts to gather; they build wax when it is 
needed if space and food are available. The duties of the 
beekeeper are not concerned with creating these impulses. 
However, bees do not always work so as to accomplish the 
most efficient results, when measured by the commercial 
standards of the beekeeper, and the care which he bestows 
on his bees serves to provide conditions suitable for the 
turning of their natural instincts into those channels which 
will yield the greatest profit. 

Disturbance to be reduced to a minimum. 

Bees should be handled so that their work will be dis- 
turbed as little as possible, for the manipulations of the bee- 
keeper are only accessory to their labors. Stings should be 
avoided. This is not so much because they are painful, but 
chiefly because the odor of the poison irritates bees and 
makes them difficult to manage. A veil (Fig. 26) and a good 
smoker (Fig. 24) are practically indispensable. By the 
use of smoke, the bees may be quieted so that they may be 
handled readily, the guards are disorganized and the bees 
gorge themselves with honey, after which they are not 
easily provoked to an attack. Too much smoke must be 
avoided as it disorganizes the entire colony and considerable 
time elapses before the bees fully return to their normal 
activities. 

234 



The Manipulation of Bees 235 

Hasty movements and the jarring of the hive are to be 
avoided. The organization of the bee's eyes enables it to 
see movement more readily than still objects. On seeing 
bees flying about the face, the beginner often strikes at 
them or moves quickly to escape the sting, thus provoking 
an attack. It requires quiet nerves not to jerk a frame or 
even to drop it when the hand in which it is being held is 
stung. 

Equipment for manipulation. 

Aside from a smoker, veil and hive-tool, the beekeeper 
needs no other equipment in opening a hive, but the be- 
ginner may find gloves (better those with the fingers removed) 
desirable. If special clothing is worn in the apiary, and it 
is desirable for both comfort and economy not to wear one's 
best, white suits are most satisfactory. They are the most 
comfortable in the heat of summer and the beekeeper has 
a good excuse for this comfort because they are best for 
apiary use. 

When to handle bees. 

The best time to open hives is in the middle of warm days, 
especially when the bees are busily engaged in collecting 
nectar. Bees should never be handled at night nor on wet, 
cold days. It is not always possible for the extensive bee- 
keeper to choose the ideal time but it is well to plan to open 
hives in favorable times, not only for the comfort of the 
operator but principally because it interferes least with the 
work of the colony. 

Opening a hive. 

Before opening the hive, a little smoke should be blown 
in the entrance. When the cover is slightly raised, a little 
more smoke should be directed over the frames before the 
bees have an opportunity to escape. If the frames are 
covered by a mat or oilcloth, which is not desirable but 
often used, the outer cover may be entirely removed and one 



236 Beekeeping 

corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. The covering 
then may be removed and the manipulation begun. In 
case the bees become troublesome at any time during the 
work, as they probably will if it is continued for a time, 
more smoke may be blown over or directed down between 
the frames to disorganize new guards. No directions need 
be given as to the way to recognize trouble and it need 
only be stated that the most common fault is to use smoke 
too freely. During all manipulations the operator should 

stand at the side or back 
of the hive and not in 
front of it, to prevent in- 
terference of bees leaving 
and returning to the hive. 
If one wishes to examine 
the brood chamber when 
the colony is in two or 
more hive bodies or has 

Fig. 100. -Hive-body resting on coTer COmb-honey Supers, the 

during manipulation. hive cover serves as a 

good support for the re- 
moved bodies. They are placed diagonally on the cover 
(Fig. 100) with only four points of support, thus avoiding 
the crushing of bees. If a second body is removed, it may 
be placed out of line on the first in the same manner. If the 
bees show signs of robbing, combs in removed bodies should 
be more carefully protected. 

Remedies for stings. 

Various remedies for stings have been advocated but they 
are all valueless. The puncture made by the sting is so 
small that no liquid can enter it after the sting is removed 
and the opening has closed. As soon as practical, imme- 
diately if possible, the sting should be removed, care being 
taken not to squeeze the attached poison sac. This can be 
done by scraping the sting out with a knife blade or the finger 
nail. After this is done the injured spot should not be 




The Manipulation of Bees 237 

rubbed and the usual advice of the beekeeper is to " forget 
it." Bathing with liniment or any other irritation serves 
only to spread the poison through the tissues. The intense 
itching soon disappears. As a comfort to the novice, it 
may be stated that repeated stings usually cause an im- 
munity to the poison to develop, after which no after-swelling 
occurs. In case of severe stinging, the injured parts may be 
covered with an ice bag or with cloth wet with ice water. 

Removing frames. 

After the frames are exposed, the propolis which often 
fastens them may be loosened by prying gently with a hive- 
tool and the frames may be crowded somewhat closer to- 
gether to permit the removal of one of them. It is immaterial 
which frame is removed first, unless the special object for 
opening the hive determines it. In cool weather the prop- 
olis may be brittle and care should be taken not to jar the 
hive as this is broken. 

During manipulation, a side frame is often removed and 
leaned against the hive to allow more room for moving the 
other frames. In leaning a frame against the hive, it should 
be in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and 
leaking of honey. The frame on which the queen is located 
should not be left outside the hive unless necessary, for she 
may crawl away and be lost. The frame should be leaned 
against the hive on the side away from the operator so that 
he will not be annoyed by bees crawling up his legs. In all 
the handling of the colony, bees should not be crushed, for 
this excites the others, and if frames are crowded too closely 
together the queen may be killed. 

Handling frames. 

In examining a comb, it should be held so that if any bees 
fall they will drop into the hive, except when it is necessary 
to carry away a frame for some purpose. Freshly gathered 
nectar sometimes drops out if the comb is improperly handled. 
If this falls into the hive the bees clean it up, whereas outside 



238 



Beekeeping 



the hive it may cause robbing and is at least untidy. The 
beginner should early form the habit of keeping combs in a 
vertical position. While sometimes it does no harm to 
tip a frame, it is rarely necessary and may cause honey to 

leak or the comb to 
break, especially if 
the frame is not wired. 
As a comb is taken 
from the hive, it 
should be lifted by 
the ends of the top- 
bar, two hands being 
used. This brings 
the comb up vertically with one side toward the operator 
(Fig. 101). To examine the reverse side without tilting 
the comb, raise one end of the top-bar until it is perpendic- 
ular (Fig. 102), turn the frame 
on the top-bar as an axis until 
the reverse side is brought into 
view, and then lower to a hori- 
zontal position with the top- 




Fig. 101. — Handling a frame, first position. 





Fig. 102. — Handling a frame, 
second position. 



Fig. 103. 



Handling a frame, third 
position. 



bar below (Fig. 103). In actual practice these steps are not 
taken successively but the turning on the top-bar is simul- 
taneous with the raising and lowering of the end of the frame. 
This is a good operation for the beginner to practice a few times. 



The Manipulation of Bees 



239 




Desirability of straight combs in manipulation. 

The use of comb-foundation in the frames is desirable to 
insure uniform comb, all of worker cells, except in places 
where the foundation may sag or become torn. Drone 
comb is undesirable ex- 
cept in raising drones for 
queen-rearing. The use 
of comb-foundation in 
wired frames insures 
straight combs and re- 
duces the danger of bees 
being crushed in remov- 
ing or in returning 
frames. A frame-hive 
with combs built cross- 
wise is more difficult to 
handle than a box-hive 
and this should never be 
permitted. The en- 
trance of the hive should 
be exactly horizontal so 
that the combs will hang 
parallel with the sides 
of the hive and so that 
the outer ones are not 
fastened to the hive- 
body, if they are prop- 
erly spaced at the top. 
The back of the hive 
should be about one 
inch higher than the 
front to allow condensed moisture to escape. A hive level- 
ing device made by Burton N. Gates is shown in the ac- 
companying illustration (Fig. 104) which needs no descrip- 
tion. This has been found useful, especially with the tile 
hive-stands used in the Bureau of Entomology apiary. 




Fig. 104. — Hive leveling device. In the 
upper figure the wedge-shaped piece is 
on edge so that when the top is level 
the hive entrance is one inch lower than 
the back. In the lower figure the 
wedge is on its side. 



240 Beekeeping 

Closing the hive. 

In closing a hive, after the frames are replaced and spaced 
properly, the cover should be put on in such a way as to 
crush no bees. If necessary the bees may be driven down 
by the use of smoke, but if bees are on the top edges of the 
hive, the cover may be slid on from the end or side so that 
none will be crushed. 

OCCASIONAL MANIPULATIONS 

In the discussions which follow, manipulations will be 
described which may be useful at almost any time or at 
different times in the season but which are not part of the 
regular work of most apiaries. The plan followed in this 
book is to give the various manipulations in the order in 
which they are used during the season. The manipulations 
discussed under this heading are most frequently useful in 
the spring. 

Feeding. 

To stimulate brood-rearing or to provide stores in the 
spring, in preparing colonies for winter and at other times 
during a shortage of stores, it may be necessary to feed the 
bees. Obviously, it is desirable to allow the bees to keep 
sufficient honey and if this can be done it is always prefer- 
able to feeding. No better stimulation to heavy breeding 
in the spring can be found than adequate protection and an 
abundance of stores, but a large amount of food is needed 
at this season and the beekeeper should feed if he finds that 
he has failed to leave enough. In small hives, the giving of 
additional stores in the spring is usually desirable, either 
in the form of combs of honey or as a syrup. 

The feeding of sugar syrup to produce comb-honey has 
of course been tried and some beekeepers have believed that 
the product is honey. This is not the case and the fraud 
may readily be detected. Fortunately, even at the lowest 
prices of granulated sugar, the sections actually cost the 



The Manipulation of Bees 241 

beekeeper more than he gets for pure comb-honey and this 
fact effectually keeps adulterated comb-honey off the market. 

What to feed. 

Honey from an unknown source should never be fed, 
because of the danger of introducing disease. Beekeepers 
usually feel that it is cheaper to feed sugar syrup because of 
the higher market value of honey, but no food for bees better 
than honey has yet been found. If extracted-honey is 
fed, it should be somewhat diluted. The best plan is to 
give combs of honey. 

As a substitute for honey, a syrup made of granulated 
sugar is best. For spring feeding, a thin syrup may be 
used, even as dilute as two parts of water to one of sugar 
(by volume). Ordinarily equal parts of each are used. 
For supplying winter stores, a thick syrup, 2j to 2J parts of 
sugar to one of water, is preferable. To prevent granula- 
tion of the sugar in the thick syrup, it is inverted (changed 
chemically to levulose and dextrose) by the addition of a 
teaspoonful of tartaric acid to 20 pounds of sugar while the 
syrup is being heated to dissolve the sugar crystals. In 
early spring and late fall, syrup may be fed while warm and 
fall feeding should be done as rapidly as the bees will take 
the syrup. In making syrup, the greatest care must be 
taken not to allow it to be discolored by scorching the 
sugar ; it should be as clear as if made with cold water. 
Glucose, other cheap syrups or molasses and the cheaper 
grades of sugar should not be fed to bees, especially for 
winter stores, since they contain substances indigestible to 
bees, causing dysentery. 

Candy and cube sugar are sometimes used for supplying 
bees in winter after their stores are exhausted. These 
should be used only in emergency and nothing but granu- 
lated sugar should be used in making candy for this purpose. 
A soft white sugar, known in the trade as " coffee A," placed 
in a division board feeder is sometimes used as a stimulant 
to brood-rearing. 



242 



Beekeeping 



Slow feeding to prevent robbing is sometimes desirable 
during extracting or other manipulations or while rearing 
queens. A thin syrup of one part sugar to nine of water is 
used, being fed in large feeders in the open. 





Fig. 105. — Division board 
(Doolittle) feeder. 



Fig. 106. — Alexander feeder in 
collar under hive-body. 



Feeders. 

There are numerous types of feeders, used for different 
purposes. The division board feeder (Fig. 105) is hung in 
the hive like a frame. It may be filled without being re- 





Fig. 107. — " Pepper-box" 
feeder. 



Fig. 108. 



Pan in super arranged 
for feeding. 



The Manipulation of Bees 243 

moved and a float must be used to prevent bees from drown- 
ing. The Alexander feeder (Fig. 106) is useful mainly for 
stimulation. It may be placed under the rear of the brood- 
chamber if the bottom board is moved forward, but this 
often causes robbing and a better plan is to place it in a 
collar under the brood-chamber as shown in the illustration. 
For feeding small quantities, a " pepper-box feeder" (Fig. 
107) may be inverted over the brood frames in an empty 
hive-body. Mason jars may be used in the same way, 
special pierced covers being sold by dealers in beekeeping 
supplies. For rapid feeding in the fall, a large pan in an 
empty super (Fig. 108) is perhaps best. Green grass should 
be thrown in the syrup to give support to the bees while 
feeding, this being better than excelsior or chips as it does 
not absorb the syrup. The empty super and pan may be 
placed under the brood-chamber for late feeding, in which 
case the bees take the syrup more rapidly. 

Uniting. 

If a colony becomes queenless in late fall, it is usually 
not profitable to give it a queen, but it may be united with a 
normal colony to save the bees. It is not wise to try to 
winter weak colonies, but if two or more are united to make 
a strong colony, keeping the best queen, the risk in wintering 
is reduced and better results are obtained in the spring. 
It is also more profitable to unite weak colonies in the spring 
than to build them up. 

Influence of hive odor. 

Every colony of bees has a distinctive odor by which bees 
recognize individuals from their own colony, normally 
resenting the entrance to their hive of those from other 
colonies. In uniting colonies, the different odors may be 
hidden by smoking both vigorously. Tobacco smoke may 
be used, but if too much is employed the bees become stupe- 
fied. If bees are stupefied by tobacco smoke, chloroform or 
other anaesthetics, they lose their memory of former locations 



244 Beekeeping 

and may be united and placed wherever desired, but Ameri- 
can beekeepers rarely have occasion to use such methods. 
During a honey-flow, when the field bees are coming in 
heavily laden with nectar, the field bees of two colonies that 
are close together may be allowed to enter one hive and they 
do not molest each other. The queen to be saved should be 
caged for a day or two to overcome the danger of the strange 
bees killing her. When brood-rearing is reduced, as in the 
fall, the colony odor is apparently less influential, for less 
precaution is necessary in uniting. 

Learning the new location. 

Field bees return to the location of their hive and they 
remember the old location and return to it if the hive is 
moved. If two colonies to be united are not close together, 
they should be moved gradually nearer, perhaps a foot 
every day that the bees can fly, until they are side by side. 
The bees learn each location in succession and after uniting 
they will not return to the original position and be lost. 
If it is necessary to move the colonies faster, they may be 
put into the new place and a pile of brush or weeds or a 
slanting board placed in front of the entrance so that when 
the bees fly out they will perceive a change and learn the new 
location. If it is desired to unite two weak swarms, this 
may be done simply by placing them together, either in the 
hive or on the hive entrance. Swarming bees abandon the 
memory of the old location (p. 180) ; they are full of honey 
and may be placed anywhere. The better queen should be 
saved and the other removed or the bees may separate into 
clusters. Swarms may be added to newly -established colo- 
nies if desired. 

If queenless colonies are found in early spring which are 
to be united with normal colonies, the usual practice is to 
place them on top of the normal colony. Few bees return 
and there is usually no trouble as such bees seem ready to go 
to any colony. 



The Manipulation of Bees 245 

Transferring. 

In increasing the apiary, it is sometimes profitable to buy 
colonies in box-hives because of their small cost. They 
should, of course, be transferred to movable-frame hives as 
speedily as possible, for bees in box-hives are of small value 
as producers, because of the impossibility of manipulating 
the combs. The advice is often given to beginners to buy 
colonies in box-hives and transfer them, but this advice is 
questionable. There is no more trying work connected 
with beekeeping, unless possibly it is the moving of a large 
apiary, and if a beginner can successfully transfer a colony 
from a box-hive he has proved his right to become a beekeeper. 

The best time to transfer colonies, if there is opportunity 
for choice, is the spring (during fruit bloom in the North) 
when the amount of honey and the population of the colony 
are at a minimum. However, the work can be done at any 
time during the active season, but there should be nectar 
coming to the hives so that while combs are exposed robbing 
will not be induced. If necessary, transferring may be done 
in a tent or cage of netting or wire cloth to keep robbers 
away, but the odor of honey may cause excitement in the 
apiary. If the field bees are out of the hive, the work is 
lessened. 

Methods. 

There are several methods of transferring and one may 
be chosen according to the plans and wishes of the beekeeper. 

Plan 1. — The box-hive is set a few feet to one side and 
in its place is put a hive with movable frames, containing 
full sheets of foundation or drawn combs. As the field bees 
return, they go at once to the new hive. The box-hive is 
turned upside down and a small box is inverted over it. 
The box-hive is now pounded continuously (the operation 
being known as drumming or driving) in such a manner as 
to transmit the jar to the combs and the bees desert their 
combs for the upper box. They cluster in this box like a 



246 



Beekeeping 



natural swarm and they may then be thrown in the new 
hive. If possible, the queen should be seen so that the 
operator may be sure that she is off the old combs. It is 
necessary that she be obtained, unless one desires to requeen 
at this time, in which event the old queen should be cap- 
tured and the new one may be run in with the bees and will 
be promptly accepted. The box-hive containing the brood 
is now placed right side up in a new location. In 21 days 
all of the worker brood will have emerged and possibly 
some new queens will be reared. These bees may be driven 

out and united 
with their former 
hive-mates by 
allowing them to 
run in the en- 
trance. They 
should, however, 
be compelled to 
go through per- 
forated zinc or a 
queen and drone 
trap (Fig. 30) to 
keep out the 
young queens. 
The old combs 
may now be 
melted after removing the honey. By this method straight 
combs are obtained. If nectar is not being collected, the 
newly established colony should be fed. 

Plan 2. — Wait until a swarm issues from the box-hive 
and then move the old hive to a new location. The swarm 
is then placed in a new hive on the old stand and it is further 
increased by returning field bees. After 21 days the bees 
which have emerged are united with the bees in the new 
hive, as described under Plan 1 . 

Plan 3. — If the beekeeper desires to save the combs in 
the box-hive, the bees may be drummed into a box, after 




Fig. 109. — Cutting combs from a box-hive 



The Manipulation of Bees 247 

which the brood combs and any other good combs are cut 
out (Fig. 109) and fitted into frames, being fastened with 
string, rubber bands or strips of wood until the bees have an 
opportunity to repair them. These frames are hung in a 
hive on the old stand and the bees are then allowed to run in. 
The cutting of combs, especially those containing brood and 
honey, is a disagreeable job and, since combs from a box- 
hive are usually of little value, this method is not recom- 
mended. 

Plan 4. — Another method which is in some respects 
better than those just given is to place the box-hive with its 
largest surface uppermost. If the bottom is now open, it is 
closed except for an entrance and a piece is removed from 
the upper side of the box-hive. The hive in which the colony 
is to be located is now put over the large opening and all 
cracks and openings around it are closed. The upper hive 
is filled with drawn combs or, if these are not available, with 
sheets of foundation. When the queen needs more room 
for egg-laying, she will go to the upper hive and, after she 
is located there, a queen excluder is put between the box-hive 
and the new hive to prevent her return. As the brood 
emerges below, the colony becomes established above. If 
there is difficulty in getting the queen to go to the new hive, 
the box-hive may be drummed. After the brood in the old 
combs has all emerged, the bees may be drummed from the 
box-hive and it may be treated as desired. 

Transferring from walls of houses. 

Swarms often locate in the walls of houses and it is some- 
times necessary to remove them to prevent damage from 
melting combs. If the cavity in which the combs are 
built is accessible, the method is the same as in transferring 
under the third plan, except that drumming is impractical 
and the combs must be cut out with the bees still adhering 
to them. A liberal use of smoke will subdue them. If it is 
impossible to open the cavity without doing considerable 
damage to the building, a bee-escape (Fig. 19) may be put 



248 Beekeeping 

over the entrance so that the bees can leave but cannot 
return, any other openings to the combs being carefully 
closed. Even better than a bee-escape is a cone of wire- 
cloth eight inches high with a hole at the apex just large 
enough for a single bee to pass. This is tacked on the house 
and the bees issue through the hole in the apex but do not 
find it again to return. A hive (with drawn combs in it if 
possible) is then placed so that its entrance is as near as 
practical to the entrance which the bees have been using. 
A queen should soon be introduced to the bees in the hive. 
The old queen does not desert her combs and continues lay- 
ing eggs, but, as her colony is depopulated, the amount of 
brood rapidly diminishes. As brood emerges, the young 
bees also leave through the wire-cloth cone and join the bees 
in the hive until in four or five weeks the queen is left prac- 
tically alone. When nearly all of the bees are out of the 
cavity and there is little or no brood, the bee-escape is re- 
moved, the entrance to the cavity is made larger if possible 
and if there is no honey-flow, the bees rob their old home 
and carry the honey to their new hive, leaving only the empty 
combs. These will usually do no damage as wax-moths 
soon destroy them. The entrance to the cavity should now 
be carefully closed to prevent another swarm from taking 
up quarters there and the hive is removed. This method 
takes considerable time, but is often best where the cavity 
is inaccessible. It is often difficult to close the cavity to 
prevent the bees from establishing a new entrance when a 
bee-escape is placed over the one to which they are accus- 
tomed. 

Transferring from hollow trees. 

The method to be used will depend on the accessibility 
of the cavity and the value of the tree. Usually the bees 
cannot be drummed out and the combs must be cut out 
after subduing the bees with smoke. If the colony is high in 
the tree and the tree is felled, the bees are disorganized by 
the jarring so that they can be handled easily. The hunting 



The Manipulation of Bees 249 

of colonies in the woods is interesting and the cutting of a 
bee tree is an experience which everyone interested in bees 
should have, but the time consumed is considerably more 
than the value of the bees and honey justify. It does not 
pay to build up the apiary in this way if the beekeeper's 
time is valuable. 

Preventing robbing in the apiary. 

At any time during warm weather, bees are inclined to 
rob other colonies, if there is no honey-flow. Every precau- 
tion should be taken to prevent this. Feeding often attracts 
other bees and, if there are indications of robbing, it should 
be deferred until late in the day. Honey left where bees 
can get it or combs left out of the hives during manipulations 
may at times lead to serious robbing. 

As soon as robbers are noticed, manipulation should be 
discontinued and the hives should be closed. If serious 
robbing occurs, the entrances should be contracted- and the 
hive fronts wiped with a cloth moistened with kerosene or 
carbolic acid. If brush is thrown at the entrances, robbers 
are less likely to enter. Outdoor feeding to prevent robbing 
is described in a previous section (p. 242). 

A wire-cloth cage, five feet square and six feet high, may 
be used if manipulations are necessary during a time when 
robbing is probable. This cage should not be closed at the 
top and bees which fly from the colony under manipulation 
escape, while robbers will rarely enter. A folding tent or 
cage made of mosquito netting may also be used. A smaller 
wire cage closed at the top may be set over a colony that is 
being robbed. 

If the cause of robbing is suddenly removed, this may 
produce more excitement than if the robber bees were allowed 
to complete their work. For example, if a colony is being 
robbed and is suddenly removed to save it, the robbers 
turn their attention to other colonies, or if a piece of exposed 
comb has attracted robbers, its removal may divert them 
to more serious devastation. 



250 



Beekeeping 



The beginner in beekeeping may mistake the play flights 
of young bees for robbing, but after the latter has once been 
observed this error will not be repeated. Bees appear old 
soon after they begin robbing ; they are dark and thin, their 
actions are nervous, and the hairs on the body are lost, 
probably by being torn off by defending bees and by squeez- 
ing through narrow openings. 

When a colony is abnormal, as in queenlessness or disease, 
it may be robbed of its stores slowly, without any excitement, 

usually by the bees of a 
single colony. 

Moving bees. 

In migratory beekeep- 
ing, in bringing pur- 
chased bees to the apiary 
and under various other 
circumstances the bee- 
keeper will find it neces- 
sary to move bees. The 
frames must be fastened 
firmly in place. If self- 
spacing frames are used, 
especially if there is con- 
siderable propolis on them, no precautions need be taken 
to prevent the swinging of the frames, but it is often 
desirable to nail a f -inch strip over the tops of the frames 
so that they cannot fall out of place if the hive is 
tipped. Abundant ventilation should be given, the 
amount depending on the temperature. In cold weather, 
the entrances may simply be closed with a block and the cover 
fastened securely, but in extremely hot weather it is desir- 
able to remove the cover or both the cover and the bottom 
board and nail on wire-cloth (Fig. 110). A 2-inch collar 
may be fastened to the top of the hive-body and wire-cloth 
put above this, to give clustering space for the bees. Colo- 
nies rarely suffer from exposure during moving so that the 




Fig. 110. — Hive ready for moving, 
this case the bottom board is left on. 



In 



The Manipulation of Bees 251 

beekeeper should not err by giving inadequate ventilation. 
In transporting colonies on a wagon, the length of the frames 
should be across the wagon bed, while on a train they should 
be parallel with the length of the car. 

It is customary to ship colonies in hives with combs, but 
recently the shipping of bees in wire-cloth cages without 
combs has been practiced. This has much to commend it, 
especially in reducing the danger of introducing bee diseases 
into new locations. The cages contain numerous slats on 
which the bees hang, and they are provided with food for 
the bees en route. The bees are put into the cage by means 
of a funnel, either with or without a queen. Bees are now 
regularly sold by the pound in such packages and shipped 
to all parts of the United States. It is probable that as this 
method is perfected it will be used in migratory beekeeping, 
thus avoiding danger of carrying disease to the home apiary 
and reducing the transportation charges. 

ELIMINATION OF NON-ESSENTIAL MANIPULATIONS 

While it is necessary in any discussion of beekeeping which 
aims at completeness to describe the various manipulations 
which may be needed during the course of the year, the bee- 
keeper should early in his experience establish a system for 
the care of his bees so that unessential movements and 
manipulations may be avoided. If bees are kept solely 
for pleasure, it matters little whether they are disturbed in 
their work, and the time of the beekeeper need not be con- 
sidered an important consideration, but when bees are kept 
for profit, these factors become vital. Every manipulation 
which does not benefit the beekeeper by increasing his 
profit should be ruthlessly eliminated, and every time a 
colony is opened it should be for some definite purpose. 

Two essentials. 

There are two factors necessary to the production of the 
maximum honey-crop over which the beekeeper has no 



252 Beekeeping 

control. He cannot govern the weather or produce honey- 
plants with profit. There are on the other hand two other 
factors with which his work must deal. His efforts should 
be for the purpose (1) of getting plenty of bees of the right 
age in time for the harvest and (2) of keeping these bees in 
proper condition for gathering the maximum crop. The 
first essential is far-reaching and obviously includes the 
entire care of the colonies to prevent starvation or loss from 
other causes. It applies especially to the work in the 
spring. The second essential applies chiefly to the control 
of swarming. It is well for the beekeeper to keep these two 
essentials always before him and to ask himself, when he 
plans any work with the bees, whether it comes under one 
of these heads. 

The beekeeper may profitably go one step further in the 
analysis. For example, stimulative feeding in the spring 
is mentioned earlier in this chapter. He should first of all 
determine whether stimulative feeding is more profitable 
than the giving of abundant stores. If he finds that he gets 
more bees by stimulative feeding, he should then determine 
whether he gets enough more to justify the expenditure of 
time and money, or whether he can get a larger total crop 
by keeping a few more colonies, combined with the giving 
of abundant stores. An example taken from life may not 
be amiss, the names being here omitted. Two beekeepers 
are located in exceptional situations which may be assumed 
to be equally good. One of these men is skilled in the 
improvement of his stock and has made significant progress, 
but the work occupies considerable time. The other bee- 
keeper feels that he has not the time for this (and he may 
not have the skill), but he keeps 100 colonies more than his 
co-worker. In the case just given the beekeeper with the 
larger number of colonies makes more money, but this illus- 
tration is by no means given to discourage breeding work. 
It shows, however, that for that particular region the greater 
profits come with extensive beekeeping, while in other regions 
more intensive work might yield better financial returns. 



The Manipulation of Bees 253 

Both men have the same object in view — ■ to produce workers 
on time for the harvest. Both are successful while all about 
them are beekeepers with indifferent or poor success, at- 
tributed probably to bad luck. 

Increase in efficiency through system. 

Not only must these essentials be emphasized, but the 
necessary manipulations must be systematized. After some 
effort in this respect, the beekeeper is usually astonished 
at what may be accomplished. This may be illustrated 
by another case. This beekeeper began work with bees 
on a business basis after keeping a few colonies for pleasure 
for several years. At the beginning of his experience he 
taught school, thus having his Saturdays for the bees as well 
as the summer vacation. At first the vacation was six 
months, but later the school year was increased, giving him 
only three months. By systematizing his work, he was 
able to do as much as formerly and gradually increased his 
colonies to 250 in three apiaries, all run for comb-honey. 
He then gave up teaching and accepted a position which 
kept him away from his bees except during thirty days' vaca- 
tion in the summer. At first he was frequently near his bees 
so that if any work was necessary he could arrange to have 
it done by others. Finally he accepted another position 
which took him entirely away from his old home and he 
now goes back just before the honey-flows and leaves as 
soon as they are over. He still produces comb-honey and 
is still successful. He has probably almost reached the 
maximum number of colonies that he can run for comb- 
honey in so short a time. It is obvious that many manipu- 
lations usually considered necessary must be eliminated in 
these apiaries. By leaving plenty of stores and by giving 
the bees abundant protection many of these are rendered 
unnecessary. This case is not by any means recorded as 
ideal, but it illustrates what the elimination of superfluous 
manipulations may accomplish. 

Anyone can produce honey in a time of plenty, but only 



254 Beekeeping 

the good beekeeper gets an adequate return in less abundant 
seasons. The ideals toward which the beekeeper should 
work are : (1) to handle the bees as little as possible ; (2) to 
manipulate them only when he has some definite object in 
view ; (3) to follow a definite system, not based on rules but 
on a knowledge of bees, capable of modification as occasion 
may arise, but working for one end — maximum honey- 
production. 



CHAPTER XIV 
SPRING MANAGEMENT 

In attempting to give the work of the apiary in chron- 
ological order, it is difficult to decide where to begin. To a 
large degree, success depends on the results obtained in 
wintering, so that preparation for winter might be considered 
the first step in the annual cycle, and practical beekeepers 
usually so consider it. However, winter is a period during 
which the beekeeper has little work with his bees, and it is 
perhaps better to begin the cycle with the first evidences of 
activity outside the hive. As has been shown, bees do not 
hibernate, and consequently their early flights are not 
evidences of an awakening after a period of inactivity. 
With their first return to the open air in the spring, the bee- 
keeper knows that the active season with his bees has arrived. 

As will be shown in the chapter on wintering (see also 
p. 91), bees are often compelled to retain their feces for 
long periods in winter. This, together with the excessive 
generation of heat, may deplete the colony, causing condi- 
tions known as spring dwindling and dysentery, one or both of 
which may be present. 

It will also be shown later that it is not desirable to manipu- 
late bees in winter. Brood-rearing may begin during the 
severe weather of January or February in the North in 
colonies wintered out of doors, but this can scarcely be 
considered as an activity of spring. 

With, the opening of the earliest spring flowers and the 
accompanying rise in temperature, the bees venture forth to 
get the small amounts of nectar and pollen thus provided. 

255 



256 Beekeeping 

As the weather becomes warmer the supplies rapidly increase 
and the bees are greatly stimulated to build up the colony. 
The old bees that emerged the previous autumn have been 
called upon, under ordinary winter conditions, to expend 
considerable energy, and their ability to do the collecting and 
the inside work in the spring is in general in inverse ratio 
to the expenditure of energy in the winter. Brood-rearing, 
however, begins before or as soon as new supplies come to 
the hive, provided, of course, that the colony is normal, and 
as the first bees emerge they in turn increase the capacity of 
the colony for brood-rearing, so that with a good queen and 
other favorable conditions the brood is rapidly increased. 

Object of spring manipulations. 

The main object of the work in the spring is to insure an 
abundance of bees in time for the harvest. In the more 
northern localities, summer comes on with a rush and often 
the principal nectar-secreting plants are in bloom so soon 
after cold weather that the colony is frequently not in condi- 
tion to obtain the maximum crop, or there may be a period 
in the spring when, from lack of nectar, the bees are not 
stimulated to the maximum breeding. If left to themselves 
and if honey is already present in the hive, bees will naturally 
rear brood and thereby rapidly increase the size of the 
colony, and the work of the beekeeper is to provide the most 
favorable conditions for the manifestation of this instinct. 

Prevention of drifting. 

Colonies which are wintered in the cellar need not be put 
in the same locations that they occupied the previous year, 
when they are removed. In setting them out, some care 
is necessary to prevent mixing. If they can fly as soon as 
they are set out, they may rush forth and then be unable 
again to locate the proper hive, in which case they often 
" drift," that is, bees enter the wrong colonies with the result 
that some colonies will be increased in size at the expense 
of others. If bees can be set out at night or on a cloudy or 



Spring Management 257 

chilly day, this is generally avoided. The entrances may 
also be reduced or, if necessary, may be closed with wet 
cloths. 

Spring protection. 

If the colonies have been wintered in the cellar, breeding 
will normally not begin so soon as in colonies that were left 
outside. When the hives are carried to their summer stands, 
the bees are subjected to sudden changes in temperature and 
to low temperatures and, unless the wintering has been 
exceptionally good, they may be able to withstand adverse 
conditions less well than colonies that were wintered in the 
open. It is therefore preferable to provide packing for 
these colonies, even if it is only a wrapping of waterproof 
paper over the hive. After colonies are removed, the bees 
need a cleansing flight to rid themselves of the accumulated 
feces and they should be put out at a time when this will 
probably soon be possible. 

First examinations. 

During early breeding, the beekeeper ought to have no 
occasion to open a hive, but, if he finds that certain colonies 
are not up to standard, he may choose a warm day to open 
them to do whatever conditions may demand. After a 
winter away from the bees, the beekeeper is usually anxious 
to look at them. On a fine warm day when the bees are 
flying freely, he should make his first general examination 
of the apiary but, if he has previously supplied the colonies 
with abundant stores and has them protected from changes 
of temperature, he may well put off a general examination 
of the apiary. If he desires to learn whether the bees have 
sufficient stores he can determine this by lifting the hive, 
or the size of the cluster may be determined, without break- 
ing the propolis which seals the cover, by looking at the 
combs from below. 

On the first examination, the beekeeper should look 
especially for queenless colonies. If any are found, it is 



258 Beekeeping 

best to unite these with normal colonies, although queens 
may now be obtained early from southern breeders. He 
should also examine the stores, for bees require large amounts 
of food during the spring and, while they usually get consid- 
erable nectar, it rarely is enough to provide stores for exces- 
sive breeding. If food is needed, it may be given rapidly 
in the form of a thick sugar syrup, or it is even better to give 
combs of honey. If hives are soiled with the spottings of 
dysentery or if there are dead bees present, the hives may be 
cleaned out somewhat, but the first examination should be 
brief, unless the weather is exceptionally warm. 

Spring dwindling. 

The old bees die rapidly and are replaced by young bees, 
which, in a good colony, emerge more rapidly than the old 
ones disappear. If, on the contrary, mortality among the 
old bees exceeds the rate of emergence, the condition arises 
which is known as spring dwindling. Obviously, prevention 
is better than treatment, but by giving extra protection and 
by making the collection of stores unnecessary by feeding, 
the energy of the old bees may be conserved so that it is 
utilized chiefly in rearing brood and the colony may often 
be saved. The brood-chamber may also be reduced to con- 
serve the heat of the cluster. 

Need of water. 

Bees need water for brood-rearing and it sometimes hap- 
pens in the spring that bees are lost in trying to obtain it. 
If there is no water close at hand, it is often advantageous 
to provide a watering place in a warm sheltered spot in or 
near the apiary. 

Uniting. 

If exceptionally weak colonies are found, it is economy 
not to attempt to build them up, but to unite them. In 
uniting colonies in the spring, two weak colonies should 
not be placed together, but a weak colony should be placed 



Spring Management 259 

with a strong one. If desired, the number can be restored 
by subsequent division. This is one of the most important 
points in spring management. 

Cleaning the hives. 

When the weather becomes settled, it is desirable, espe- 
cially where comb-honey is produced, to subject the hive to a 
spring house-cleaning. If the bottom board is cleaned of 
debris and the propolis is scraped from the frames and 
rabbets, it will not only facilitate future manipulations but, 
when the sections are put on, there will be less propolis avail- 
able to discolor them. Beekeepers, however, are not so 
devoted to a spring house-cleaning as are housewives. While 
Caucasian bees were kept in the apiary of the Bureau of 
Entomology the removal of propolis in the spring was prac- 
tically a necessity. This may be done quickly in the spring, 
while the propolis is brittle. Dr. Miller uses a hoe to remove 
propolis and burr combs from the top-bars of the brood 
frames. 

Equalizing the colonies. 

Not all colonies increase in population equally fast, even 
with the best of management. The differences may be due 
to a variety of causes. If some colonies have more stores 
than they need, thereby reducing the space available for 
brood-rearing, combs of honey may be removed and given 
to colonies that need more stores, returning to the rich 
colonies empty combs removed from those to which honey is 
given. Similarly, if some hives contain more brood than the 
average, colonies may be equalized by taking combs of 
emerging brood with the adhering workers away from those 
abundantly supplied, giving them to weaker colonies, care 
•being exercised not to transfer the queen. The weakest 
colonies in the apiary should be assisted in this way only 
after all the others are equalized ; then they are given any 
frames of brood still available, and are thus built up as rapidly 
as possible. Another method of equalizing is to shake bees 



260 Beekeeping 

from the frames of a strong colony in front of the entrances 
of those to be helped. The young bees go in and are accepted, 
while the field bees return to their original hive. The queen 
must, of course, not be shaken in this way. The advantages 
of having colonies develop at about the same rate and of 
reaching the honey-flow equally strong in bees, are as fol- 
lows : (1) the colonies are ready for a given manipulation at 
the same time, thus allowing the work to be well systema- 
tized; (2) less hive-bodies are needed than if strong colo- 
nies are given supers in accordance with their individual needs ; 
(3) when properly done, equalizing probably results in an 
actual increase in the total number of bees in the apiary, 
since every queen is more nearly capable of egg-laying to 
her full capacity and no queen is restricted by having only 
a small number of workers to feed her brood ; (4) less manipu- 
lation is necessary when the honey-flow begins (especially 
in comb-honey production) in sorting combs of brood and 
in reducing the brood to one hive-body, if this is practiced ; 
(5) the brood is compact and this is especially desirable in 
comb-honey production. 

The work of equalizing colonies is considerable and the 
beekeeper must determine for himself whether it is profit- 
able. In the management of out-apiaries, this work neces- 
sitates extra trips which come at a time when the average 
beekeeper has all the work that he can do. Making colonies 
all in one mold often fails to bring to light the deficiencies 
of some queens and the superior qualities of others for 
breeding stock. If a brood disease is present or is even 
known to be present in the neighborhood, there is danger in 
moving combs about so freely. 

Clipping queens. 

The clipping of the wings of queens is advantageous in 
the control of swarms, as will be shown later, and to find 
queens in the spring is easier than later. In clipping the 
queen, she is lifted from the comb, held securely but gently 
between the thumb and index finger of the left hand and a 



Spring Management 261 

wing is cut off with fine scissors. The queen may be held 
with her wing against wood, when it may be cut with a sharp 
penknife, but scissors are safer, at least for the beginner. 
Some beekeepers clip the queen's wing when she is introduced, 
in case queens are mated from nuclei, but some colonies may 
rear queens without the knowledge of the owner and an 
examination for undipped queens in the spring will greatly 
reduce swarms which issue with queens capable of flight. 
Some beekeepers, so that they can tell a queen's age, clip 
opposite wings on alternate years or make a distinctive cut 
each year. It may perhaps be well to warn the beginner 
against clipping the wings of an unmated queen. If egg- 
laying is progressing regularly the queen is of course mated. 

Summary of favorable spring conditions. 

The conditions favorable to the rapid increase in the size 
of the colony in the spring may be restated as follows : 
(1) a large number of vigorous workers, due to successful 
wintering, (2) a prolific queen, (3) abundant stores properly 
located in the hive so as to be easily accessible to the bees, 
(4) favorable weather conditions, (5) fresh pollen and nectar 
and water for the bees, (6) a prolific race or strain of bees, 
(7) good brood combs of worker cells in quantity sufficient 
for the needs of the colony. 

QUESTIONABLE MANIPULATIONS 

The manipulations previously discussed in this chapter 
are not all practiced by all beekeepers but they are not the 
subject of controversy. On the other hand, there are two 
spring manipulations that have been the subject of much 
discussion by beekeepers and they are still in dispute. These 
are spring stimulative feeding and the spreading of the brood. 

Stimulative feeding. 

So long as nectar is coming to the hive in abundance, the 
colony is stimulated to the maximum brood-rearing possible 



262 Beekeeping 

in proportion to the population. Frequently, however, 
there are periods- when from a lack of nectar-secretion or 
inclement weather, no fresh supply of food is obtained. It 
is asserted by some that the feeding of a thin sugar syrup at 
this time in small quantities acts just as a natural honey- 
flow, stimulating the bees to greater activity in brood-rear- 
ing and resulting in the maximum strength of colony at the 
time of the honey-flow. Since feeding requires some manip- 
ulation of the colony which is not beneficial in inclement 
weather, many beekeepers believe that by providing an 
abundance of food in the fall or by giving stores rapidly in 
the spring the colony receives all the stimulus to brood- 
rearing that it should have and that stimulative feeding is 
not desirable. This is obviously a question especially for 
the northern beekeeper. If a colony is short of stores, combs 
of honey may be given it. If a colony has wintered well, 
has a good queen, is in a large hive abundantly supplied 
with stores and is well protected from changes in tempera- 
ture, it is doubtful whether it can be stimulated to much 
greater brood-rearing than these conditions will bring about. 
Even if stimulative feeding results in increased brood-rear- 
ing, as it may under some circumstances, the beekeeper 
may still find it to be an unprofitable practice. If he is 
managing several apiaries, the work of going to all of them 
daily, or even less frequently, is considerable, and he may 
find it more profitable simply to operate more colonies to 
make up for the difference. If stimulative feeding is prac- 
ticed, it is usually best to feed warm syrup in the evenings 
so that the bees will not fly as a result of the feeding and so 
that robbing will not be started. 

Spreading the brood. 

Spreading the brood is an even more debated question. 
If the brood-cluster is divided and an empty comb is inserted, 
the bees will attempt to cover all the brood and, in so doing, 
that part of the empty comb which intervenes will be kept 
warm enough so that the queen will lay eggs therein. When 



Spring Management 263 

this new brood is well started, the manipulation may be 
repeated and still more eggs will be laid. This is attractive 
in theory but in practice is attended with danger. The 
bees may not attempt to cover both portions of the divided 
brood, resulting in loss, or, because of exceptionally cold 
weather, they may contract the cluster and leave the out- 
side brood to die. The beginner should by all means leave 
the amount of brood to be determined by the bees, confining 
his work to the supplying of protection, stores and room 
for the expansion of the brood. 

If the giving of abundant protection, stores and room 
for the maximum advantageous expansion of the brood will 
cause the colony, from its own instinct, to reach its maximum 
strength in time for the storage of the crop, then additional 
manipulations in stimulative feeding and in spreading of the 
brood, even though they may do no harm, are non-essential. 
They are, therefore, to be condemned for the commercial 
apiary. If the favorable conditions enumerated do not 
bring the necessary strength of colony and if stimulative 
feeding will, then these manipulations are justifiable. If 
the period for brood-rearing previous to the beginning of 
the honey-flow is short, rapid brood-rearing becomes more 
important. This is usually the case in northern localities. 
It is safe to say, however, that stimulative feeding and spread- 
ing of the brood should not be practiced early in the spring but 
should be confined to a period of six or eight weeks just previ- 
ous to the particular honey-flow for which the beekeeper is 
building up his colonies. If the main crop is in late summer, 
the beekeeper need not force his bees in the spring. In some 
localities, the season is made up of a series of honey-flows of 
about equal importance. If there are long intervals between 
honey-flows, the beekeeper must see that brood-rearing is at 
its best during a period of six or eight weeks before each flow. 

Substitutes for pollen. 

Beekeepers have repeatedly noticed that during a short- 
age in the supply of pollen, bees will pack meal or sawdust 



264 Beekeeping 

on their legs, just as they do pollen, and will carry it to the 
hive. There are also reports of coal dust being carried in 
this way. After observing bees carry in rye flour from a 
neighboring mill, Dzierzon put some in the apiary where the 
bees could get it readily and they carried it in eagerly. It is 
still held by many beekeepers that bees should be given rye 
flour or pea, oat or corn meal in the spring, these being 
considered more suitable foods than wheat flour. These 
substitutes are chemically not very similar to pollen, and 
observations as to the effects of them on the development 
of the brood are badly needed. In fact, it can scarcely be 
said that we know that the giving of substitutes for pollen 
is serviceable in brood-rearing, and one cannot but wonder 
what Dzierzon' s advice would have been if his apiary had 
been near a coal mine. Because of the unusual things that 
bees do, we are not justified in concluding that the giving 
of substitutes for pollen is useless, however, and no harmful 
results are recorded from the practice. It is a promising 
field for study, for there is sometimes a scarcity of pollen just 
when it is most needed. 



CHAPTER XV 

SWARM CONTROL AND INCREASE 

At the close of the chapter on the manipulation of bees, 
it is pointed out that success in honey-production depends 
(1) on getting bees in time for the harvest and (2) on keeping 
them in the proper condition for storing. The first require- 
ment is discussed in the chapter immediately preceding. 
However, if a colony of bees builds up rapidly to full strength, 
the beekeeper is confronted by the problem of preventing it 
from dividing its forces, thereby causing him to fail in get- 
ting the maximum crop, or even to get no surplus from it. 
This second problem is mainly involved in swarm control, 
but also includes the providing of other conditions favorable 
for storing. 

Loss from division of the working force. 

In the days of the box-hive, success in beekeeping was 
measured by the number of swarms that issued, but the 
beekeeper now knows that he cannot increase the number 
of his colonies during a honey-flow without curtailing his 
crop, unless the increase is made from brood that would 
emerge too late for the resulting bees to assist in gathering 
nectar. Success in manipulation is now measured by the 
results the beekeeper attains in preventing swarming. If 
swarms issue, as they will at times in spite of every known 
precaution, the beekeeper then aims to use the bees so as 
still to keep them together and thus to overcome the danger 
of a reduced crop. Because the experienced beekeeper so 
well knows that swarming endangers his crop and also that 
swarms may be lost, the usual statements concerning the 

265 



266 Beekeeping 

beauty of a swarm fail to meet a ready response from 
him. To him, swarming is the one great handicap in bee- 
keeping. 

The necessity of keeping the bees together cannot be 
overestimated. If a colony is divided just before or during 
the honey-flow, the two parts fail to produce as much sur- 
plus honey in that honey-flow as the same bees would if 
they had remained in one colony and in normal condition. 
Furthermore, when bees are preparing to swarm, their con- 
dition is not so favorable for gathering. Whether there is 
some physiological difference or whether the lack of concen- 
trated effort in gathering is due to an unbalanced condition 
of the colony population is not known, but the results of the 
swarming preparations are shown in a decrease in the crop. 
In successful honey-production, it therefore becomes essen- 
tial that every effort be made to reduce and to overcome the 
tendency to swarm. 

Variation in swarming. 

It is interesting to note that, in any region, swarming 
usually occurs at a certain season or seasons and rarely occurs 
throughout the entire active season. It is most common 
in those sections of the North in which the main honey-flow 
occurs in early summer. If there are two heavy honey- 
flows, swarming may occur in connection with each one, al- 
though it is usually less troublesome in the later one. The 
crowded condition of the hive in the production of comb- 
honey is favorable for the development of the swarming tend- 
ency and, since the early summer flows of the North are 
the best for comb-honey, the control of swarming is most 
difficult in northern comb-honey apiaries. 

That many comb-honey producers- crowd their colonies 
more than is necessary or desirable will be shown in a later 
chapter, but, even with the most skillful manipulation of 
the supers and with the proper manipulations throughout, 
there is always more crowding than is necessary in extracted- 
honey production. Swarm control is therefore chiefly a 



Swarm Control and Increase 267 

problem for the northern comb-honey producer, and from 
these men we have obtained the best systems for controlling 
swarming and also the most light on its cause. 

In the South, where the honey-flows are longer and less 
intense, swarming is less frequent, and this is also true in the 
irrigated regions of the West. In those regions of the tropics 
where the honey-flows are practically continuous, there may 
be a kind of swarming season, but swarms are so much less 
frequent that the northern beekeeper would not consider 
the control of swarming a serious problem in such a 
locality. 

Variation in colonies in respect to swarming preparations. 

In any apiary and in almost any season, colonies differ 
greatly in their propensity to swarm. (1) There are some 
which show no indication of swarming. These are the very 
best for honey-production and the beekeeper should aim 
to increase their number. (2) Other colonies show a tend- 
ency to swarm by starting queen cells, but may be deterred 
either by cutting out the newly started queen cells or by tak- 
ing away some combs of brood. (3) Still other colonies 
are more persistent and will swarm if the honey-flow continues 
unless they are subjected to some radical manipulations. 
(4) Some colonies whose queens fail swarm in connection 
with the supersedure of the old queen. 

"Of 160 colonies run for comb honey that were fair sub- 
jects for comparison, 13f per cent went through the season 
without ever offering to start queen-cells; 12J per cent 
started cells one or more times, but gave it up when their 
cells were destroyed; and 73f per cent seemed so bent on 
swarming that they were treated by being kept queenless 
10 or 15 days. The colonies that were left with their queens 
all the time averaged 36j per cent more sections than those 
that were treated. But that's better than they would have 
done if left queenless for 21 days, which would be the case 
practically if swarms were shaken." — C. C. Miller, 1905, 
"Gleanings in Bee Culture," XXXIII, p. 1174. 



268 Beekeeping 

Direction of the beekeeper's efforts. 

The work of the beekeeper in swarm control may be 
divided into two phases, for his manipulation of a colony 
depends on his recognition of the degree of persistence in 
swarming which a colony exhibits. He may try to increase 
the number of colonies which make no preparations to swarm 
and may prevent swarming in the colonies which respond 
to simple measures. To these manipulations may be given 
the name preventive measures. 

However, the beekeeper finds some colonies which he 
knows from experience cannot be kept from swarming by 
cutting out queen cells, by the removal of a frame or two of 
brood or by other simple expedients. To describe the dif- 
ference which the beekeeper recognizes is somewhat difficult, 
but, in general, if the larvae in the queen cells are still small, 
preventive measures may be used. In cases of the building 
of queen cells obviously due to supersedure or when the 
working force is relatively not so strong as the brood, an 
artificial swarm should not be made. To the more drastic 
measures, used on colonies with advanced larvae in the queen 
cells which will persist in their preparations to swarm, the 
name remedial measures l is proposed. 

PREVENTIVE MEASURES 

These may be grouped under the three heads given be- 
low. Whatever the system of management, the earliest 
manipulations in swarm control will usually be preventive 
measures, for the beekeeper cannot know very far in advance 
which colonies will fail to respond to the less drastic manipu- 
lations and in any event these will deter swarming in the 
larger number of colonies. 

1 In Demuth's bulletin on "Comb Honey," he uses the term "control 
measures," but the words "preventive" and "control" are not mutually 
exclusive. 



Swarm Control and Increase 269 

Breeding. 

Some beekeepers make a practice of requeening colonies 
which swarm with young queens which are the progeny of 
queens whose colonies have not swarmed, in an effort to 
eliminate swarming by selection of non-swarming stock. In 
a sense, this work has failed, for after years of such selection 
the bees still swarm under favorable conditions, but the 
testimony of many practical beekeepers indicates that the 
percentage of colonies that swarm under proper management 
is reduced by selection of non-swarming stock. Since the 
men who are making this selection are, at the same time, 
improving the manipulations in swarm control and are be- 
coming more skilled in this work, it is somewhat difficult to 
measure the value of this effort. Since requeening from 
good stock is a highly commendable practice for other rea- 
sons, it seems advisable to choose breeders from those which 
have not swarmed, wherever possible. If breeding queens 
are chosen from the colonies which show the best results in 
honey crops, these queens will usually be from colonies that 
have not swarmed during the season. 

Mechanical devices. 

Efforts have been made to devise a hive which will give 
to the bees an environment in which the swarming tendency 
will usually not be developed, a well-known example of which 
is the Aspinwall hive, with slatted frames between the combs. 
Similar slats between the frames of ordinary hives have 
been used. Since a non-swarming hive is needed especially 
in the production of comb-honey, it would appear that there 
should be provision for more crowding of the bees than is 
given in the Aspinwall hive, but it is perhaps too early to 
pass judgment on the efforts in this line. A deep (two inch) 
bottom board with a large entrance (Miller, " Fifty Years 
among the Bees ") leaves space under the frames in which 
may be placed a slatted rack during the active season. This 
provides abundant ventilation and room for bees and may 



270 Beekeeping 

act as a preventive of swarming, although it is not so claimed 
by Doctor Miller, The use of large hives in the production 
of extracted-honey, which so successfully reduces swarming, 
may be considered as the giving of an environment unsuit- 
able for the development of the swarming tendency rather 
than the control of swarming by manipulation. 

Preventive manipulations. 

The most common methods of preventing swarming are 
by manipulation, probably because success, if attained, is 
immediately recognizable. Greater progress has been made 
in the devising of manipulations for this purpose than is 
shown in breeding or in the invention of mechanical devices. 
The manipulations used by the beekeeper in swarm preven- 
tion fall into the following classes : (1) the introduction of 
young queens (preferably from superior stock, possibly the 
progeny of queens whose colonies have not swarmed) ; (2) 
the prevention of crowding in the brood-chamber previous 
to the honey-flow, the crowding incident to comb-honey pro- 
duction being brought about only after supers are put on. 
This is often accomplished by giving an extra hive-body for 
early brood-rearing, so that there is abundant room for 
brood and stores ; (3) the use of bait sections or extracting 
combs (Fig. 133) in the first super in comb-honey production, 
thus inducing the bees to begin work in the supers promptty 
to avoid excessive and unnecessary crowding in the brood- 
chamber; (4) the proper manipulation of supers in comb- 
honey production (p.. 314) to reduce crowding as far as pos- 
sible (possibly also to remove young bees from the brood- 
chamber) ; (5) the use of only good worker comb in the 
brood-chamber, to reduce the number of cells unavailable 
for worker eggs; (6) ventilation (by raising the hive on 
blocks, or by large entrances) ; (7) shade, to prevent over- 
heating; (8) the removal of combs of brood which are re- 
placed by empty combs or sheets of foundation to relieve 
the congestion (see also this manipulation under remedial 
measures) ; (9) the removal of queen cells soon after they 



Swarm Control and Increase 271 

are started, since if queen cells are well advanced, their 
removal is not so effective in preventing swarming. This 
usually requires an examination of the brood-chamber once 
in seven to ten days. 

Miller's methods. 

To make these manipulations clear, it may be well to 
recapitulate by describing the system used by C. C. 
Miller. To provide abundant bees in time for the harvest, 
as well as to eliminate any tendency to early swarming, 
strong colonies are given an extra hive-body, during the rapid 
spring breeding, all the combs being built to the bottom 
bar of the frame so far as practical. Colonies are requeened 
whenever a queen shows signs of inability to keep up the full 
strength of colony, these queens being from mothers whose 
colonies have not swarmed. When the honey-flow begins, 
a single hive-body for each colony is filled with full combs of 
brood (any additional combs of brood being used in other 
less populous colonies, for increase or for other purposes) 
and each colony is given a super containing one or more bait 
sections, into which the bees go at once, if the honey-flow 
permits. 1 Doctor Miller is a master in the manipulation of 
supers and the system used by him is described in a later 
chapter (p. 314). His hives have wide entrances (2 inches 
deep) and are protected by trees from the heat of the sun. 
Frequent examinations are made to remove newly started 
queen cells. The crops which Doctor Miller obtains are 
so much greater than those of other beekeepers similarly 
situated, or even than those in better locations, that his 
methods should be carefully studied. He uses the 8-frame 
Langstroth hive, but does not especially recommend it. It 
should also be added that Doctor Miller is a firm advocate 

1 Doctor Miller once asked the author, in all seriousness, what bee- 
keepers mean by their reported difficulty in getting bees to work in the 
supers promptly. Probably his bees are so much better prepared to gather 
a surplus than are those of many beekeepers that in his own apiary he has 
not seen for years conditions which occur yearly in the apiaries of many 
beekeepers. 



272 Beekeeping 

of the improvement of stock by selection and he attributes 
much of his success to his efforts in this line. 

REMEDIAL MEASURES 

The preventive measures previously mentioned are usually 
sufficient to control swarming in a colony used in extracted- 
honey production but, in the crowded conditions of the 
comb-honey hive, in a good season, there will probably be 
some colonies that will persist in their preparations to 
swarm. In a poor season, when the colony lacks the stimu- 
lus of nectar coming to the hive, it has not the conditions nor 
the number of bees necessary for swarming, but when con- 
ditions during early brood-rearing are favorable and when 
there is abundance of nectar during the main honey-flow, 
there is also usually a larger population, and preparation for 
swarming may be begun and often completed in most of the 
colonies in the apiary. It then rests with the beekeeper so 
to manage these colonies that, by keeping the bees together 
and by keeping them in working condition (p. 85), he may 
obtain practically as large a crop as if swarming had not 
occurred. He now aims not so much to prevent swarming 
as to satisfy the instinct and to overcome the evils incident 
to division of the working force. The method to be adopted 
depends largely on the size and location of the apiary. If 
the bees are all in one apiary, where they are under the 
immediate care of the beekeeper every day, the bees may be 
permitted to swarm naturally but, in comb-honey produc- 
tion especially, colonies in out-apiaries can be expected to 
produce more, without the loss of swarms, if by some reme- 
dial manipulation the swarming tendency is controlled to suit 
the convenience of the beekeeper. If an assistant is kept at 
each apiary, it becomes essentially like the home apiary, 
but it rarely pays to keep so much help. 

Control of natural swarms. 

Swarms which issue may be managed in several ways. 
(1) They may be allowed to fly into the air and cluster on 






Swarm Control and Increase 273 

some support, after which they may be hived and placed in 
the desired location. When the bees have clustered they 
may be shaken into a box or basket and then placed in front 
of the hive that they are to occupy. They should be placed 
so that some of the bees find the entrance promptly, other- 
wise the bees may begin their characteristic march in the 
wrong direction (p. 68). If the bees cluster on a limb which 
can be cut, this may be removed with the adhering bees and 
carried to the hive and the bees shaken off. If the cluster 
forms on the trunk of a tree or post or in some other place 
from which they cannot be readily removed, a box contain- 
ing a piece of comb (Fig. 47) may be placed above and 
preferably in contact with the cluster and the swarm will 
soon move into the box, where it may be handled. Care 
should be taken to get the queen, as otherwise the bees may 
again take wing and return to her. 

(2) If the queen's wings are clipped (p. 260), she is unable 
to fly with the swarm and, after leaving the hive, she falls 
to the ground. The swarm generally does not cluster if 
the queen is not with it or, if it does cluster, it soon takes 
wing and returns to the old hive, provided it does not have 
a virgin queen with it as is sometimes the case if swarming 
has been unduly delayed. In the meantime, the beekeeper 
should find the queen on the ground and place her with the 
returning bees, after adjusting the hives as described later. 

(3) If a queen and drone trap (Fig. 30) is placed over the 
entrance, workers can leave, but when the queen attempts 
to leave she is retarded by the trap. She then, in her at- 
tempts to escape, usually goes into the upper part of the trap 
and is unable to return. The swarming bees then behave 
as they do when the queen's wings are clipped, and soon 
return. To allow the queen to go below with the bees it is 
necessary only to pull the tin slide which is shown partly 
drawn in the illustration. Here too the hives are adjusted 
as when the queen is clipped and of course the swarm is not 
left in the old brood-chamber. The inexperienced beekeeper 
should perhaps be warned not to leave a queen trap on the 



274 Beekeeping 

entrance at all times for it will prevent virgin queens from 
leaving the hive to mate. Drones of course are also pre- 
vented from leaving and if they are abundant they may 
crowd the entrance, with disastrous results. 

(4) As the swarm issues, a wire-cloth cage may be placed 
over the hive or fitted over the entrance. The bees then 
cluster in the top of the cage, without causing confusion in 
the apiary, and may be hived when convenient. 

Automatic hivers. 

Several years ago the desirability of some automatic hiv- 
ing device was much discussed and numerous efforts were 
made to devise apparatus which would deposit or lead the 
issuing swarm to a new hive. These arrangements were 
devised to place the swarm in a new location and beekeepers 
now prefer that it be returned to the old location. 

Location for the swarm. 

After a swarm has issued, the old practice was to hive it 
in a new location, thus dividing the working force. The 
beekeeper should manipulate the two parts of the original 
colony so as to prevent such a division. A method some- 
times used is to return the swarm without the queen to the 
old hive and about a week later (before the developing 
queens emerge) the queen cells are cut and the colony is 
requeened later. The usual method is to remove the hive- 
body containing the brood while the swarm is out and to 
return the swarm to a new hive on the old stand. By either 
of these methods, the swarm is augmented by the returning 
field bees and, if there were supers on the colony before 
swarming, they are kept with the swarm and the bees 
promptly return to their work. The most common error of 
the inexperienced beekeeper in swarm management is to 
put the supers on the " parent colony" (the one which re- 
tains the brood). The population of the parent colony is 
reduced by the loss of the field bees and after-swarming is 
thereby made less probable. These manipulations make it 



Swarm Control and Increase 



275 



necessary that the beekeeper be present when the swarm 
issues, or soon after, and they are therefore not suitable for 
out-apiary management. 

Disposition of the brood after swarming. 

The so-called parent colony may be sufficiently populous to 
cast an after-swarm and should therefore be managed so as to 
prevent this and also so that the emerging bees shall be useful, 
especially if the honey-flow will probably be of long duration. 
The parent colony may be broken up at once by the dis- 
tribution of the brood to other colonies, while the adhering 
bees are added to the swarm. Another method is to destroy 
all queen cells except one and to allow the parent colony to 
remain intact. If the parent colony is left to requeen itself 
by the emergence of the developing queens, it often casts 
an after-swarm, so it is safer either to remove all queen 
cells except one or to remove them all and give a laying 
queen or virgin queen. 

Still another method is to reduce the population of the 
parent colony just before the young 
queens emerge and to add the emerging 
bees to the swarm. If the parent colony 
is put back beside the swarm after the 

swarm is hived, 
is left there for 
a week and is 
then removed to 
a new location, 
it is so reduced 
when the virgin 
queens emerge 
that an after- 
swarm is not cast. A modification 
of this method to be preferred 
when the clipping of queens is prac- 
ticed or when the queen trap is used is to set the parent 
colony to one side with its entrance about 90° from its former 






Fig. 112. — Manipulation to 
reduce population of par- 
ent colony — second po- 
sition. Parent colony is 
now in hive without supers. 



Fig. 111. — Manipula- 
tion to reduce popu- 
lation of parent 
colony — first posi- 
tion. Previous to 
swarming. 



276 



Beekeeping 







Fig. 113. — Manipulation 
to reduce population of 
parent colony — third 
position. 



location (Figs. Ill and 112), so that all returning field bees 
join the swarm. As the brood emerges, the young bees be- 
come accustomed to the location of 
their hive. In a couple of days the 
parent colony is turned about half 
way around toward its former posi- 
tion (Fig. 113), and, after the bees 
again become accustomed to the 
change, it is moved to a position 
parallel to that of the new colony 
(Fig. 114). If within seven or eight 
days of the issuing of the swarm, the 
parent colony is removed to a new 
location, the young bees in flying out join the swarm, 
thereby considerably reducing the parent colony. 

When the parent colony is moved, part of the bees may be 
brushed in front of the entrance of the 
swarm, leaving some to care for the 
brood but not enough to induce an after- 
swarm. The parent colony may be 
used for increase or the bees as they 
emerge may still be added to the swarm 
or to some other colony. Other methods 
of using some young bees or sealed brood 
to advantage will be found by the bee- 
keeper. They may be used to build up 
weak colonies or, if the honey-flow will 
probably be long enough to warrant it, 
two parent colonies may be placed side by side. By giving 
one a queen and removing the queen cells from the other, 
they may be united about two weeks after the swarm issues, 
when most of the brood has emerged from the queenless 
colony, and they are then ready for supers. 

What to use in the brood-chamber in hiving swarms. 

The use of full sheets of foundation in the brood-frames has 
the marked advantage of resulting in straight combs of worker 




Fig. 114. — Manipula- 
tion to reduce popu- 
lation of parent 
colony — fourth po- 
sition. 



Swarm Control and Increase 



277 



cells. The comb is built up rapidly, in fact so rapidly as to 
be considered a disadvantage at times, in that brood is so 
quickly reared that the increase in population may again 
induce swarming. The use of full sheets of foundation may 
increase the work done in the brood-chamber, at the expense 
of the surplus. 

Narrow strips of foundation, perhaps an inch wide or less, 
may be used, and this usually results in slow progress in the 
construction of combs in the 
brood-chamber. The bees 
then do more work in the 
supers, if they have been 
started, and it is so long be- 
fore the colony can rear much 
brood that they rarely at- 
tempt to swarm again in the 
season. However, combs 
built on strips of foundation 
often contain many drone 
cells, especially if the comb 
building in the brood-cham- 
ber progresses faster than the 
cells are filled with eggs by 
the queen or when comb is 
built outside the space needed 

for brood. If the parent colony has a brood disease, the use 
of strips of foundation is preferable, thus combining swarm 
management and disease treatment. When either strips of 
foundation or full sheets are used and partly drawn combs 
are present in comb-honey supers, the queen may go above 
to lay eggs and this should be prevented by the use of the 
queen excluder (Fig, 115) for a few days or until there is 
room for egg-laying below, when the excluder may be re- 
moved. If the supers are left off for a time, work will 
progress in the brood-chamber so that space for egg-laying 
will be available there and the queen will not go to the supers. 

One or two empty combs may be used in the brood-cham- 




Fig. 115. 



Queen excluder (" honey 
board"). 



278 Beekeeping 

ber, the remaining spaces being filled with frames containing 
full sheets of foundation. This prevents the storage of 
pollen in the supers and gives the queen a place to lay eggs 
at once, so that an excluder is not necessary. Swarms some- 
times desert a hive containing only foundation, but some 
empty comb or a comb containing some unsealed brood will 
prevent this. The placing of foundation next to full comb 
often results in an unusual extension of the side walls of the 
comb and a restriction of the building out of the foundation. 

Empty combs, or comb filled with honey or sealed brood, 
are also sometimes used. It is claimed by some that, just 
after swarming, bees secrete wax with a minimum expendi- 
ture of energy and with the least consumption of honey, and 
it is therefore believed that it is wasteful not to give the 
swarm an opportunity to secrete some wax in building comb. 
If the swarm is only moderately strong, the bees may confine 
their efforts chiefly to the brood-chamber, if empty combs 
are used. 

In extracted-honey production, these questions do not 
arise, for the beekeeper can use whatever is most convenient 
and, by giving plenty of room for storage, the colony will 
rarely swarm again. It therefore does not pay to use strips 
of foundation in the extracted-honey apiary. 

In comb-honey production, a swarm may be hived in the 
usual way and then in a day or two the brood-chamber may 
be temporarily contracted by substituting thick division 
boards for four or five of the frames (in a 10-frame hive), 
thus so reducing the room in the brood-chamber that the 
bees are driven to the supers. This method may be used 
during a honey-flow of white honey, which is preferable for 
comb-honey, and when there will probably be a later honey- 
flow of honey of a lower grade, which is good enough to use 
in building up the brood-chamber but not of fine enough 
quality for sections. If this contraction is practiced, and it 
is less frequent now than formerly, the contraction should 
be to about five frames, rather than a slight contraction to 
perhaps seven frames. 



Swarm Control and Increase 279 

Remedial manipulations. 

The remedial measures so far discussed are useful for 
colonies that have swarmed, in making the most of the parts 
of the divided original colony. However, these require al- 
most constant attention in some seasons and this is neces- 
sary just when the beekeeper can least afford to give it, if he 
is managing a large number of colonies. Because of the 
desirability of the manipulations being in accordance with 
the plans and schedule of the beekeeper, rather than at the 
whims of the bees, as in natural swarming, beekeepers, 
especially producers of comb-honey, have tried many ways 
virtually to create the conditions which are found after 
swarming, but to do this with advantage to the crop. By 
such a system the comb-honey producer can maintain sev- 
eral apiaries, visiting them at regular intervals, with a knowl- 
edge that swarms will not issue in his absence, except in 
those cases where every rule seems to fail. However, the 
losses can be made so slight that it does not pay to keep an 
assistant at each apiary, if the proper measures are adopted. 
Fortunately for the beekeeper, bees give warning in advance 
of the probability of the issuing of a swarm by building 
queen cells. By examining each colony once in seven to ten 
days during the swarming season, the beekeeper can subject 
colonies making these preparations to the chosen manipu- 
lation, which may be a preventive or a remedial measure, 
depending on how far preparations for swarming have pro- 
gressed. If the manipulations given under the title of Pre- 
ventive Measures are inadequate, the colony may be handled 
with another end in view, namely, to satisfy the desire to 
swarm and to prevent permanent division. It is further 
possible, especially in apiaries where increase is desired, so 
to manipulate every colony before the swarming season 
arrives that there will be little swarming, even in comb-honey 
production, but since increase in the number of colonies 
during or just before the honey-flow is at the expense of the 
crop from that flow, beekeepers usually find it advanta- 



280 Beekeeping 

geous not to attempt to use remedial measures until neces- 
sary. 

In the literature on swarm control, there are dozens of 
plans for accomplishing this end, and it is neither desirable 
nor necessary to give all of them or even all of the successful 
ones, for to attempt to do so would only be confusing. 

Unbalanced condition of swarming colonies. 

If the conditions which are found in natural swarming are 
examined, it will be recalled that, after the swarm issues, it 
receives no additional young bees for a period of at least 21 
days (unless they are given by the beekeeper in accordance 
with some of the plans previously outlined). If, as seems 
not unlikely, one of the most important factors in the cause 
of swarming is a preponderance of young bees, this condition 
is rectified for the swarm and the bees become " satisfied." 
On the other hand, the parent colony rapidly increases the 
percentage of young bees (unless, again, they are removed 
by the beekeeper) and after-swarms are not uncommon, 
unless the beekeeper manipulates to prevent them. It thus 
appears that the restoration of the balance of the colony is 
important in bringing it to a condition in which the swarm- 
ing tendency is lost and in which the storing instinct becomes 
dominant. 

Break in the emergence of brood. 

Whether this speculation is justified must be determined 
by future investigations, which are greatly needed. At any 
rate, and this is the point of importance to the beekeeper, 
those practical manipulations which are successful in the 
control of swarming, whether applied before or after queen 
cells are built, have for their result a single factor in common 
— a reduction or temporary cessation in the continuity of 
the daily emergence of brood. There have been numerous 
discussions of the principles of swarm control, for this is a 
problem which has attracted the attention of modern bee- 
keepers to a marked extent, but so far as the author is aware 



Swarm Control and Increase 281 

the existence of a single underlying factor in all the methods 
devised was not shown previous to the discussion of this 
subject by Demuth. This elimination of the emerging bees, 
to be successful in its purpose, must occur just before or 
during the swarming season. 

The various manipulations devised by beekeepers which 
bring about this condition and which have been devised to 
control swarming come under two headings : (1) The pre- 
vention or great restriction of egg-laying; (2) the removal 
of brood. Even if there were one best manipulation, a bee- 
keeper would probably still prefer the one to which he has 
become accustomed, but there is so far no one method 
superior to all the others. As conditions vary from season to 
season, or even within the season, it becomes desirable that 
the beekeeper change his manipulations from time to time. 

Restriction of egg-laying. 

The most radical manipulation under this heading is the 
removal of the queen. She may be removed for a period of 
perhaps ten days and then returned (after the destruction 
of all queen cells), or she may simply be caged and left in the 
colony, to be released at the end of the period. Another 
method is to confine the queen to a single comb of brood 
and several empty combs, or to two or three frames filled 
with foundation in a hive-body below the one containing 
most of the brood, in which case the queen cells must be 
destroyed both before and after the period of separation of 
the queen and brood. 1 In any event, all queen cells must 

1 The removal of the queen has been recommended by Elwood, Quinby, 
Hetherington and France. Caging the queen was then advised by Doo- 
little and tried by Miller. The next step was to utilize the queen by keep- 
ing her in a nucleus (Miller) and a later development consisted in making 
the nucleus practically a part of the main colony. This was done by put- 
ting a comb or two of brood, without queen cells, in the lower body and then 
placing the queen and most of the brood on top of the hive, over a cover. 
Most of the bees are left with the queenless portion and because of the 
reduced population in the upper hive, the bees destroy the queen cells. 
In about ten days the body containing the queen and brood is put below 
and the body containing the few combs of brood is removed to be used as 



282 Beekeeping 

be removed before the queen is returned or swarming may 
occur. These methods are employed only on colonies that 
have made active preparations to swarm (having advanced 
larvae in the queen cells) and they are successful as a rule, if 
the swarming period is not prolonged sufficiently to allow 
time for the swarming tendency to be developed anew. The 
particular time for making colonies queenless must be deter- 
mined by the stage in the development of the queen cells 
present in the colony preparing to swarm. If only young 
larvae are found in the queen cells, the cells may simply be 
cut out as a precautionary measure against swarming, but if 
the queen cells are advanced, their removal will not prevent 
swarming and the colony should be dequeened. However, 
a colony with the queen temporarily removed or even sepa- 
rated from the brood is often not in the best condition for 
storing, especially when first made queenless, and these 
methods have sometimes been condemned because of this 
fact. Dequeening is to be preferred in obvious cases of 
supersedure or in colonies in which the working force is not 
large, but which still persist in preparing to swarm. 

Requeening combined with dequeening. 

Requeening is desirable whenever a queen is unable to 
keep up the population of the colony, and many beekeepers 
find it advantageous systematically to requeen every two 
years. The presence of a young queen was mentioned earlier 
as a preventive of swarming, but this is not a guarantee that 

needed ("Put-up Plan," C. C. Miller). Another modification which 
followed this is described above, in which the queen is put below an ex- 
cluder on one frame of brood and empty combs. Numerous beekeepers 
have advised requeening in connection with the dequeening, others have 
modified the plan by making the lower hive into a nucleus for queen rear- 
ing, while in one case it is recommended that a nucleus be established on 
the side of the hive in which the queen is mated, so arranged that by pull- 
ing a slide of perforated zinc, the queen is introduced to the colony after 
mating. These various systems are mentioned here mainly to show their 
relation to the fundamental principle of restricting egg-laying and also 
to suggest the various methods so that the beekeeper may choose the one 
best suited to his plans. 



Swarm Control and Increase 283 

no swarm will issue, under conditions of a prolonged honey- 
flow. However, requeening combined with queenlessness 
for about ten days, after swarming preparations have begun, 
is a much more reliable procedure. The method used in 
rearing queens, in mating them and in introducing them to 
the queenless colonies will depend on the equipment and 
system of the individual beekeeper. 

Removal of brood. 

The removal of a frame or two of brood was mentioned 
earlier as a swarm-preventive measure in relieving the con- 
gestion in the brood-chamber, especially in comb-honey 
production. It obviously also has the effect of reducing the 
number of emerging bees for a period. If a colony persists 
in its preparations to swarm, a common remedial measure is 
to carry the removal of brood to the extreme (artificial 
swarming). In brief, the beekeeper does for the colony in 
advance of swarming just what the bees would do for them- 
selves if left to their own instincts. The brood-combs are 
removed from the hive and the bees are shaken or brushed 
from the combs into a new hive-body. The brood-combs 
are then comparable to the parent colony, while the bees in 
the new hive make up the artificial swarm. The treatment 
of the various parts does not differ from the same procedure 
under conditions of natural swarming and need not be re- 
peated. Since artificial swarms desert the hive sooner than 
natural swarms, desertion may be prevented by removing 
only a part of the brood at one time and, in fact, some ma- 
nipulations do not call for the removal of all the brood. 

This manipulation has been modified in a dozen ways by 
various beekeepers, but the essential principle remains the 
same. The differences in the directions for the making of 
artificial swarms are chiefly in the disposal of the two por- 
tions of the original colony. It is claimed by some that, to 
obtain satisfactory results, the bees must be smoked or other- 
wise manipulated until they fill themselves with honey, just 
as bees do in natural swarming. This usually occurs during 



284 Beekeeping 

the manipulations without any thought on the part of the 
beekeeper. 

Mechanical appliances. 

Various mechanical contrivances have been advocated for 
separating the brood and the adult bees. After the queen 
has been placed in a new hive, the bees are trapped out and 
induced to enter the new hive on which has been placed the 
supers. There is no additional principle involved in these 
devices and they are serviceable only in changing the work 
that the beekeeper has to do. They often do not reduce 
the amount of time and labor needed. Among these devices 
may be mentioned the Hand bottom board (provided with 
levers so placed as to force the returning bees into the de- 
sired hive) and Dudley tubes for trapping out workers, all 
of which have been described in bee-journals. 

INCKEASE 

It is assumed in the previous discussion that increase is 
not desired, and in comb-honey production in the North, 
where the swarming problem is most acute, increase during 
the honey-flow is usually too expensive to be justifiable. If 
the apiary has been reduced by winter losses or in some other 
way, or if an apiary is being built up, the beekeeper may 
prefer to sacrifice honey for bees. In connection with the 
operation of the various plans for controlling swarming, there 
will often be brood that can be used for increase. Another 
method is simply to divide colonies into two or more equal 
parts, preferably providing each queenless portion with a 
queen cell, or better still with a queen, as soon as possible. 
To obtain increase and to assist in swarm control without 
decreasing the crop too greatly, combs of brood with some 
adhering young bees may be removed and made into nuclei 
to be allowed to build up and to be augmented with frames 
of brood from other sources as they are available. 

In case the main honey-flow is in late summer {e.g. buck- 



Swarm Control and Increase 285 

wheat) it is often possible to make increase in early summer 
and to have all the colonies up to full strength by the time 
the honey-flow begins. Increase in such a case may not 
result in any decrease in the crop and, in fact, it often brings 
an increase in the harvest. 

In the North, in regions where the main honey-flow comes 
in early summer, it will usually be found more profitable to 
set aside certain colonies from which to make increase, rather 
than to deplete the colonies throughout the apiary in an 
attempt to make increase and produce a crop at the same 
time. It is possible to make increase and to produce the 
maximum crop of honey in an apiary within a single season, 
if conditions are favorable, but not to do these things simul- 
taneously. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY 

Before the invention of the honey extractor in 1865, 
honey was removed from the comb either by crushing it and 
draining off the honey or by melting it, allowing the whole 
to cool, leaving the wax on top. By these methods strained 
honey is produced, an article greatly inferior to modern 
extracted-honey. In extracting honey, the cappings of the 
honey cells of the comb are first removed with a hot knife, 
the comb is put into an extractor and is then whirled, the 
honey being removed from the cells by centrifugal force. 

Increase in the production of extracted-honey. 

The demand for extracted-honey is increasing, and it is 
estimated for the United States that, whereas 34.9 per cent 
of the honey produced in 1909 was extracted, in 1914 this had 
increased to 42.1 per cent. This estimate of the increase is 
conservative, and among professional beekeepers the increase 
in this period is doubtless greater. This is partly due to the 
demand for honey from bakers and confectioners, but a po- 
tent influence is the increased confidence of the consuming 
public that the extracted-honey on the market is not adul- 
terated. For this confidence, the beekeeper is indebted to 
the enforcement of the numerous pure food laws. Bee- 
keepers have consistently fought adulteration and have 
welcomed the enforcement of these laws in protecting them 
from the competition of unscrupulous jobbers who were 
formerly guilty of adding inferior syrups to extracted-honey. 

286 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 287 

Advantages of extracted-honey. 

The fact that the combs may be repeatedly used increases 
materially the amount of honey produced by a single colony 
and thereby reduces the cost of production of a pound of 
extracted-honey. There is less secretion of wax and, since the 
secretion of a pound of beeswax is estimated as costing from 
six to twenty pounds of honey (and probably considerable 
bee vitality), this saving is considerable. In light honey- 
flows, bees often refuse to work in comb-honey sections, 
whereas they will store the available nectar if extracting 
combs are on the hive. Under comb-honey conditions the 
queen is often cramped for room and the population of the 
colony is thereby reduced, while in extracted-honey con- 
ditions she has abundant room, unless otherwise restricted. 
The larger comb area in extracted-honey production fur- 
nishes the bees plenty of cells in which to store fresh nectar, 
giving increased evaporating surface and thus hastening 
the ripening process. The beekeeper can care for more 
colonies in producing extracted-honey than in producing 
comb-honey. Swarming is more easily controlled and is 
much less prevalent because of the abundance of empty 
comb provided. Furthermore, in comb-honey production 
most of the work in the apiary requires skill and experience, 
while in extracted-honey production one man can furnish 
the skill for many colonies and can employ unskilled labor 
to help daring extracting. In selling extracted-honey to the 
consumer there is the marked advantage of blending honeys 
from different sources, thereby obtaining a mixture "which 
can be duplicated year after year. 

Disadvantages of extracted-honey. 

While more extracted-honey than comb-honey can be 
obtained from a colony in a season, this is balanced by the 
fact that the wholesale market value of a pound of ex- 
tracted-honey is less than that of a section of comb-honey, 
the unit with which a pound of extracted-honey must be 
compared. However, year in and year out the advantage 



288 Beekeeping 

is probably still with the producer of extracted-honey, so 
far as financial return is concerned. In some localities 
extracted-honey does not sell as readily as comb-honey. 
In extracting honey and in heating it later to bottle it, 
some of the delicate aroma is lost but this usually is not 
sufficient materially to reduce the value of the honey as a 
delicacy. 

Extracted-honey hives. 

A hive at least as large as the 10-frame Langstroth should 
be used, for smaller hives do not provide sufficient room for 
the activities of a colony headed by a vigorous queen and 
large colonies are far more profitable than small ones. When 
a honey-flow begins, the hive should be ready with an extra 
hive-body containing frames of the same size as the brood- 
chamber already on top. The extra hive-bodies or supers 
may be given one after the other as the increase in surplus 
honey indicates, the empty super being usually put next 
to the hive containing the brood. If the beekeeper believes 
the local conditions warrant it he may give several hive- 
bodies at once. It is quite usual to space the frames in the 
supers farther apart than in the brood-chamber, giving 
eight frames equally spaced in a 10-frame body. This 
makes less combs to handle for a given amount of honey, 
and if the comb is cut deep in uncapping, more wax is ob- 
tained. It also makes uncapping easier. 

Choice of storage combs. 

White honey stored in cells in which brood has been 
reared is sometimes darkened slightly but most beekeepers 
find it too much work to keep the combs for breeding en- 
tirely separate from the storage combs. Colonies are also 
sometimes stimulated in the spring by putting a few brood- 
combs in the upper story to get the bees to go up promptly. 
This is especially valuable in swarm prevention. Usually 
the queen is allowed to go where she will in the hive to de- 
posit eggs. 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 289 

Use of extracting combs smaller than brood-combs. 

An exception to the above statements concerning the 
size of the hive and supers is to be found when unusually 
deep brood-frames are used, when frames of Langstroth 
depth are often used for extracting combs. Some beekeepers 
also prefer to use shallow extracting frames, the length of 
the Langstroth frames but 5| inches deep, to obviate the 
lifting of such heavy supers as those of full Langstroth size. 
The latter frames are advantageous for bulk comb-honey 
production (p. 318). 

Number of supers. 

The character of the honey-flow will determine largely the 
number of surplus bodies used and the method of taking off 
the honey. In a slow honey-flow one surplus body is often 
sufficient and as individual combs are filled and sealed they 
are removed and the honey extracted. In a heavy honey-flow 
more bodies should be given at one time so that there will be 
room for ripening and storing the honey. In the latter case, 
whole hive-bodies are frequently taken away at one time. 

Manipulation of the supers. 

To confine the queen to the lower hive-body and prevent 
brood from being scattered throughout the hive, one of 
two methods may be employed. If a queen excluder (Fig. 
115) is used the queen is kept below, but many honey pro- 
ducers object to these on the ground of expense and be- 
cause they believe the workers are somewhat retarded by 
them. If the new supers are always placed directly above 
the brood-chamber and under the supers already on, there 
is little likelihood of the queen going above. Under these 
circumstances the order of the supers is practically the 
same as in comb-honey production (p. 314). Bees prob- 
ably begin work in new combs more quickly if they are 
placed near the brood-chamber. In rapid honey-flows, 
however, bees go readily to the very top of the hive for 
empty cells without hesitation. 



290 Beekeeping 

Need of abundance of drawn combs. 

In -any event, plenty of drawn combs should be available 
and they should be given to the colonies soon enough so 
that there will always be some empty comb in the hive. 
If the bees become crowded, the queen may be restricted 
in egg-laying and there is not room to spread out the nectar 
for economical ripening. The crowded conditions so com- 
monly found in comb-honey production should be avoided 
in the production of extracted-honey. The advantage of 
fully drawn combs is especially evident in poor seasons, 
for then the bees may refuse to build combs but will store 
all the honey available if drawn combs are provided. 

The giving of frames entirely or partially filled with 
foundation from which combs must be built, diverts a part 
of the colony to wax building and probably reduces the 
field force, although wax is secreted chiefly by young bees 
not yet ready for work in the field. Part of the honey is 
consumed in wax building. There may be some delay in 
starting work on the new combs, which in a heavy honey- 
flow results either in a loss of honey or in the cramping of 
the queen. The extracted-honey producer should supply 
himself with drawn combs in abundance as soon as possible. 
These may be obtained economically by hiving swarms on full 
sheets of comb-foundation. Another good method is to put 
eight frames in a 10-frame hive as an upper story, four on 
one side being full combs and the other four being frames 
containing comb-foundation. This is better than to alternate 
comb and foundation, in which case the combs are usually 
drawn out abnormally thick and the comb-foundation is 
drawn out slightly. Better combs are built during a good 
honey-flow for the corners are then filled more complete^ than 
in a small honey-flow. If desired the nectar obtained at the 
end of the main honey-flow may be utilized in comb building. 

System in producing extracted-honey. 

The extensive producer of extracted-honey may systema- 
tize his work so that it is necessary to visit each out-apiary 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 291 

only a few times a year. The number and time of these 
visits must be determined by the character of the honey- 
flows. Usually the honey from each floral source should 
be extracted separately and this necessitates a trip after 
each honey-flow. The apiaries should be of such size that 
either in one day or two all the extracting can be done, and 
to help with this work unskilled labor may usually be em- 
ployed. Since the giving of plenty of drawn combs re- 
duces swarming, it is usually not profitable to keep a helper 
at each apiary during the swarming season, for the few 
swarms that would be saved are worth less than the helper 
would cost. If the apiary can be located near the home 
of some interested person the swarms may be caught, but 
frequently it is desirable to put out-apiaries in rather deso- 
late places, some distance from a dwelling. E. D. Town- 
send of Northstar, Michigan, manages a number of out- 
apiaries in northern Michigan on four trips a year. On 
the first trip (June) he gives each strong colony two 10- 
frame supers, each containing eight frames. On the second 
trip (July) and the third (after the honey-flows) he extracts, 
two trips being made to keep the clover and bass wood honeys 
separate. In October he sees that the colonies are ready 
for winter, after which they are not again visited until June. 

Removing honey from the bees. 

Honey should not be removed from the hive for extracting 
until well ripened. When at least two-thirds of the surface 
of the comb is capped over the honey will be sufficiently 
thick, but the humidity should be considered in laying down 
a rule for this. In dry climates, such as the semi-arid 
regions of the West, the evaporation of the water in the 
nectar takes place rapidly and it is not necessary to wait 
until so much of the honey is capped. Conversely in regions 
of high humidity it is sometimes difficult to get honey well 
ripened. 

When the time comes to extract, the usual practice is 
to remove the frames one by one, returning those not ready, 



292 Beekeeping 

and to brush or shake off the adhering bees. Bee-escapes 
(Fig. 31) may be used in removing bees from extracting 
supers but this is not usually practiced by extensive pro- 
ducers as it necessitates going to the apiary a day ahead 
and it is desirable to reduce the trips wherever possible. 
For the beekeeper with one apiary, these may often be 
used to advantage. A bee brush (Fig. 28) may be used 
for brushing off the bees or a bunch of grass or weeds will 
answer admirably. The combs practically free of bees are 
then taken to the house for extracting. For carrying these 
an ordinary hive-body with a cover answers very well and 
special handles may be put on it to facilitate carrying, or 
several bodies may be placed on a wheelbarrow or two- 
wheeled cart. Some beekeepers have arranged rails through 
the apiary on which trucks may be run for carrying full 
bodies in and for returning the empty combs. This is 
practical for fixed apiary locations but often the professional 
beekeeper wants to have no apparatus that cannot be moved 
if desired. 

The greatest care should be exercised while honey is 
being taken from the hives that the bees do not begin rob- 
bing. This is especially necessary if extracting is done 
after the honey-flow has ceased. Should robbing begin, 
it is often best to stop work for the day, as robbing is not 
only most annoying to the beekeeper but detrimental to 
the bees. The feeding of a thin syrup out of doors is some- 
times practiced to prevent robbing during extracting. 

House for extracting. 

The house where the extracting is done need not differ 
materially from the honey-house described previously (p. 
23). If the apiary is on sloping ground, it is preferable 
to have the colonies above the house, so that the heavy 
full hives are carried down hill and the empty hives up. 
To reduce labor, it is desirable that there be an opening 
for admitting the honey to the house convenient to the 
uncapping outfit and that the extractor be near at hand. 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 293 

These should be on a high level in the house, if practicable, 
so that from the time the honey runs from the extractor, 
its course is down hill to the final container. It is worth 
the effort to pay considerable attention to this feature, for 
if the honey must be lifted at any part of its journey a great 
amount of labor is involved in large apiaries where tons 
of honey are extracted in a season. If such an arrangement 
is not feasible, a honey-pump (Fig. 122) may be used, as is 
described later. 

Portable extracting outfits. 

In sections where at times it is desirable to move apiaries 
or where several out-apiaries are under one management, 
it is occasionally advantageous to have a portable extracting 
outfit which is virtually an extracting house on wheels. 
A well-screened wagon is fitted with uncapping cans, ex- 
tractors (with power if desired) and all the necessary equip- 
ment. As the honey is extracted, it can be run into a tank 
under the wagon bed or into barrels or cans. If desired a 
tank wagon to carry the honey may accompany the outfit. 
Some beekeepers have found portable buildings (built in 
sections) preferable, in which case one is put in each apiary. 
If these are used, it is better to have a full extracting outfit 
at each apiary. 

Uncapping. 

When the full combs of honey reach the extracting house, 
the first manipulation is uncapping. This is done with a 
specially constructed knife, 
of which there are several ( 
types (Fig. 116). Of these 
the Bingham knife with <T 
heavy wide blade is best. 

The knife should be kept FlG - H6-- Uncapping knives: upper, 
^ Novice; lower, Bingham. 

sharp, clean and hot, and 

when the usual knives are used, each operator is pro- 
vided with two so that one may be kept in hot water, to 




294 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 117. — Steam- heated uncapping knife. 



clean and heat it, while the other is in use. Recently a 
steam-heated knife (Fig. 117) has been put on the market 
which is highly recommended by those who have tried it. 

Steam is generated in 
a small boiler (such 
as a one-gallon honey 
can), passes through 
a hose into a hollow 
space in the knife 
blade, escaping through a small hole in the tip. Some 
European beekeepers use an instrument like a comb (Fig. 118) 
for uncapping, but this is too slow for American beekeepers. 
In uncapping, the lower end of the comb is placed on some 
support and the comb is slightly tipped so that as the cap- 
pings are cut off they fall away from the surface of the 
comb (Fig. 119). If the 
knife is first inserted at 
the lower end of the comb 
and brought upward with 
a sawing motion, the cap- 
pings fall away easily and 
cause no inconvenience or smearing 
fer to begin cutting at the upper end, thereby utilizing the 
weight of the knife in cutting the comb. The upward cut 
is practiced by most extensive beekeepers. 




Fig. 118. 



Comb for uncapping, used 
in Europe. 

Some beekeepers pre- 



Cans for capping s. 

The uncapping should be done over some sort of receptacle 
into which the cappings will fall. Hutchinson used a simple, 
cheap and satisfactory outfit, consisting of a barrel hung 
with bent wires on the edges of a galvanized iron tub. Across 
the top of the barrel is nailed a board through which is 
driven a nail with the point upward. One of the end bars 
of the frame is placed on this nail point and after one side 
is uncapped, the frame is turned on the nail. Some bee- 
keepers prefer to bore a one-inch hole in the cross piece 
into which the projection on the bar of the frame is inserted. 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 



295 




Another cross piece on 
which to scrape wax and 
honey from the knife is an 
advantage. The cappings 
drop into the barrel and 
the honey drains into the 
tub below through cracks 
in the barrel. The advan- 
tage of this cheap mechan- 
ism is that when one barrel 
is well filled with cappings, 
the outfit may be set aside 
to drain and another one 
substituted. More elabo- 
rate tanks (Fig. 120) have 
been devised for this pur- 
pose which have the ad- 
vantage of durability and FlG ; n9 
permanence. These tanks 
may be made either of 
sheet metal or of wood lined with tin. A screen is ar- 
ranged in the box on which the cappings fall and the honey 

drains into the lower 

space. 

Capping metiers. 

A later develop- 
ment in uncapping 
cans is a piece of ap- 
paratus in which the 
cappings are melted 
at once and the honey 
and melted wax run 
out. Honey is then 
quickly drawn off 
from the bottom of 

Fig. 120. — Tank to receive cappings. the receptacle leaving 



Capping melter. This also 
shows the proper method of remov- 
ing cappings. 







S.---1- 







r~' 


— --r;; 






% 


H 




%' / 


/>/ 






296 



Beekeeping 



the wax to cool on top of a little of the honey. A small cap- 
ping melter (Fig. 119) is now marketed, but for extensive 
operations it is preferable to make a larger tank (Fig. 122) 
on this principle. In these melters the honey and wax 
come in contact only with the inner wall of a water jacket 
and do not touch metal which is in direct contact with the 
flame. The objection has been raised that the heating of 
the honey in this way discolors it, but if it runs off and is 
separated from the melted wax 
quickly this is reduced to a mini- 
mum. Apparatus of this type has 
been adopted by numerous exten- 
sive producers. The relief from the 
care of a great mass of cappings at 
the end of extracting certainly ap- 
peals to the extensive beekeeper. 

Types of extractors. 

After the comb is uncapped on 
both sides it is ready for the ex- 
tractor. The development of the 
extractor from the first simple 
clumsy machines is of interest and 
illustrates nicely the progress of 
beekeeping in recent years. Following the announcement 
of the invention l of the extractor in Italy, the first type 
marketed in the United States consisted of a revolving 
can into which frames were placed in pockets and the can 
was revolved by means of a handle directly attached. 
The next step, and a most important one, was to make 
the can stationary (Fig. 121), the frames being placed in 
baskets attached to a central axis which is driven with a 
gear. The "Novice" extractors (1869) are of this type, 




Fig. 121. — Extractor with 
stationary can. 



1 The removal of honey by centrifugal force was discovered accidentally, 
de Hruschka gave his son a comb on a plate. He put this in a basket and, 
boy-like, swung the basket around him. de Hruschka noticed that some 
honey was drained out and thereby got the basic idea for the extractor. 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 297 

the baskets being close to the axis giving the greatest prac- 
tical centrifugal force for a given velocity of the comb. 
These are made for two and four frames and are still used. 
The next advance was in making the reversible extractor, in 
which the baskets are hung by one edge on pivots, so that 
when the honey is removed from one side, the basket can 
be turned and the other side extracted without removing 
the combs from the baskets. From this it was a short 
step to the automatic reversible machine in which it is not 
necessary to bring the reels to a full stop to reverse the 
baskets. When first inserted, the baskets are placed so 
that in their revolutions they are pulled by their hinges. 
After one side is empty, the speed is checked by means of 
a brake on the central axis and the momentum of the baskets 
throws them around on the hinges exposing the other side 
of the comb. Soon after this improvement was made, the 
driving rod was provided with a slip-gear so that, after 
the reels are well under way, the gear is thrown out and 
the reels revolve while the driving gear stands still. From 
this point progress has been chiefly in the application of 
power to the extractor and in increase in size. We now 
have extractors driven by gasoline or electric motors having 
a capacity of four, six, eight (Fig. 122) and even twelve 
frames. These large outfits are capable of handling tons 
of honey in a season. The latest improvement is the ap- 
plication of the friction drive in place of gears, by which 
any speed may be obtained by changing the position of one 
of the friction members, but the special advantages are 
smoothness in starting and reduction of noise. Extractors 
of all the types mentioned except the early revolving can 
extractors are still manufactured and each type is suited 
to certain apiary conditions. Obviously only professional 
beekeepers need a large power outfit, but there are a great 
many of these, as evidenced by the unexpected number 
of sales of such equipment. It is claimed that the power 
driven extractors clean the combs more thoroughly than 
do hand driven machines. 



298 



Beekeeping 



Extracting. 

In extracting, care must be exercised not to run the ex- 
tractor too rapidly as this may break or crush combs, es- 
pecially new or unwired ones. It is a good practice to 
extract some honey from one side, to reverse and extract 
the other side clean and then go back to complete the ex- 
tracting on the first side. With fragile combs, the honey 
on the inner side may be forced against the midrib of the 
comb so strongly as to crush it if the comb is revolved too 




- sur/>0firro/t 



Fig. 123. — Honey strainer. 



rapidly in extracting the first side. In placing combs in the 
extractor, those of about the same weight should be placed 
opposite each other to prevent swinging of the extractor, 
thus making it easier for the operator and less wearing on 
the machine. The honey is thrown against the side of the 
extractor can and runs down and out an opening provided 
at the bottom, usually equipped with a honey gate (as in 
Fig. 121) so that it may be quickly and securely closed. 

Straining the honey. 

Since particles of cappings naturally adhere to the comb 
and since other foreign matter may get into the honey, 
including an occasional bee, the honey should be strained 



The Production of Extracted-Honey 



299 



as it leaves the extractor. For small operations, it may 
simply be run through a cheese-cloth bag, greater surface 
being given by supporting the cheese-cloth on wire netting 
(Fig. 123). Another type is known as the gravity strainer. 
In this, the honey runs into a tank with a partition having 
an opening at the bottom through which the honey can pass 
to another compartment. No honey flows from the outlet 
until it fills the strainer to the level of the upper outlet and 
most of the larger foreign particles rise to the top in the 
first chamber allowing the honey to pass off relatively free 
from foreign material. Gravity strainers are widely used 
and can readily be made to any desired capacity. They 
are usually combined with 
a strainer of cheese-cloth 
(Fig. 122) to get out more 
of the impurities. 

Storage tanks. 

From a strainer of any 
type it is advantageous 
to run honey into a tank 
so that particles that pass 
the strainer will have an 
opportunity to rise to the 
top, the honey always be- 
ing drawn from the bot- 
tom. Many beekeepers, 
however, run honey di- 
rectly from the strainer 
into cans or barrels. The 
extra settling in the tank not only removes more small 
particles of wax, but allows air bubbles to escape and also 
allows any surplus water to evaporate in dry weather. 
Large tanks of a capacity of several tons are often used by 
California beekeepers (Fig. 124). If the tank is outside 
the extracting house, it should be covered tightly to keep 
out robber bees as well as dirt. Outdoor tanks are not 




Fig. 124. — Honey storage tanks. 



300 Beekeeping 

practical except in the dry regions of the West where it 
does not rain during the honey season. To aid in keeping 
out bees and dirt, the western honey tanks have a relatively 
small opening at the top. 

Reduction of the lifting of honey. 

If the extracting house can be so arranged that the honey 
will flow from one piece of equipment to the other, much 
lifting is avoided. Honey is usually run into tanks through 
pipes and if desired these may be utilized in carrying the 
honey from one house to another or to tanks some distance 
from the extracting house. Care should be taken to keep 
these pipes clean. If the honey cannot be run by gravity 
through its entire course, a honey-pump (Fig. 122) may be 
used and the usual practice is to attach this to the extractor 
so that it may be driven by the same power that runs the 
extractor. The whipping of honey in a pump tends to in- 
duce granulation so that honey should not be pumped after 
being heated for bottling (p. 324). 

Returning combs to the hives. 

After the combs are emptied, they may either be returned 
to the bees to be refilled, if nectar is still coming in, or may 
be returned to be cleaned of honey and then removed for 
storage. If the honey-flow is still on, empty combs may 
be put on a hive as the full ones are removed, but during a 
light flow of honey or a dearth of nectar this may cause 
robbing and undue excitement in the apiary. In this event, 
the combs should be kept in the extracting house until the 
end of the day. If the combs are returned simply to be 
cleaned, a half dozen hive-bodies may be put over one colony 
and the bees will soon clean all of them. After the surplus 
combs are emptied, they may be left on the colonies to pre- 
vent their destruction by wax-moth larvae or they may be 
stored in a light, well-ventilated room or in hive-bodies where 
they should be watched and fumigated when necessary. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE PRODUCTION OF COMB-HONEY 

Comb-honey is honey as stored in the comb by the bees, 
the size and shape of the comb being determined by the 
small wooden box (section) provided by the beekeeper 
and the comb being sold with the section still surrounding 
it. The development of this style of package is readily 
traced back to a period previous to the invention of the 
modern hive. Formerly boxes were put on top of the box- 
hive or skep in which the bees built comb and stored honey. 
The next step was to make these boxes of a number of units 
comparable to the modern section and to compel the bees 
to build one comb in each unit. From this it was a short 
step to separate sections with partitions (separators) between. 

Purity of comb-honey. 

The purchaser of a section of comb-honey may feel sure 
that he is buying a pure product of the bees, since comb- 
honey cannot be adulterated with profit. It is impossible 
to make an artificial comb, fill it with syrup and cap it 
over so that it even roughly resembles the work of the bees. 
By the use of modern apiary appliances, comb-honey is 
produced that is so attractive and uniform in appearance 
that the claim is often made that it is manufactured. An 
examination will, however, show that no two sections are 

Note. In the preparation of this chapter, the author is indebted 
to his colleague, Geo. S. Demuth, for invaluable assistance. Mr. 
Demuth's bulletin "Comb Honey" (U. S. Dept. Agric, Farmers' 
Bulletin 503) should be read and studied by every producer of 
comb-honey. 

301 



302 Beekeeping 

identical as they would be if machine made. To show its 
confidence in the purity of comb-honey, the National Bee 
Keepers' Association in 1904 offered $1000 for a single sec- 
tion of manufactured comb-honey which would even ap- 
proximately resemble the work of bees and a similar offer 
was made considerably earlier by A. I. Root, Medina, 
Ohio. Needless to say, no person has been able to claim 
these prizes. 

The "Wiley lie." 

This calls to mind an episode which at the time caused 
beekeepers of this country much anxiety. H. W. Wiley 
stated in " Popular Science Monthly " in 1881, in an article on 
prevalent practices in food adulteration, that artificial 
combs of paraffin were being filled with glucose, capped 
to imitate the work of bees, and sold as comb-honey. In 
this statement he was entirely wrong and he publicly ad- 
mitted the error later, there being, however, some basis for 
his misunderstanding since he had been informed of efforts 
along this line by a New England inventor. "Popular Science 
Monthly " did not have a circulation large enough to cause 
much trouble from such an erroneous statement, but un- 
fortunately it was called to the attention of some prominent 
beekeepers. They dubbed it the " Wiley lie" and con- 
tinued to magnify the harm that would come from it and 
to re-publish the error with denials until the story was 
spread throughout the country. The last chapter in this 
incident was the anonymous re-publication of the original 
statement and a collection of denials in an effort to hinder 
the passage in Congress of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 
1906, now so familiar to all consumers of food. It should be 
made clear that this effort was not perpetrated by any or- 
ganization of beekeepers, although an attempt was made 
to make it so appear. The only fault that can be found 
with the beekeepers is that they did not refrain from dis- 
cussing the matter and they thereby probably did the in- 
dustry far more damage than did the original statement, 



The Production of Comb-Honey 303 

for it appeared that they might be covering their own mis- 
deeds. Occasionally some ignorant or sensational writer 
even now succeeds in repeating this error in print, but bee- 
keepers promptly demand and usually receive a public 
correction. There is not the slightest basis for the mis- 
representation. 

Decrease in comb-honey production. 

With the invention of the honey extractor, some enthu- 
siasts predicted that soon no comb-honey would be produced, 
but this prophecy has not been fulfilled. Comb-honey has 
a place in the American honey trade which cannot be filled 
by extracted-honey. However, a gradual change is taking 
place and the percentage of the total honey crop that is 
produced in sections is decreasing annually. Professional 
beekeepers have found that they can care for more colonies 
when producing extracted-honey, thereby increasing their 
profits. The spread of the brood diseases is rapidly eliminat- 
ing the beekeepers with small apiaries for whom comb- 
honey is more convenient and, while the number of colonies 
in the United States is increasing, the sale of sections is 
steadily decreasing. There are other reasons for this change 
which appear later under the enumeration of the disadvan- 
tages in comb-honey production. 

Demand for fancy comb-honey. 

The American markets are now demanding only fancy 
comb-honey and the inferior grades and darker comb- 
honeys find a poor sale. To be successful in competition 
with extracted-honey, comb-honey must be a fancy article, 
appealing to the fancy trade. For this reason, which is 
becoming more evident every season, there are still many 
beekeepers who produce comb-honey who should change 
to extracted-honey, and it is to be hoped that this transi- 
tion will continue until all the grades of comb-honey which 
now injure the market are eliminated. On the other hand, 
there will be increased profits for the best grades of comb- 



304 Beekeeping 

honey, and the beekeepers in favorable localities may find 
it profitable to increase their production of honey in sections. 

Advantages of comb-honey. 

The advantages in the production of comb-honey are 
numerous. As stated in the previous chapter, some of the 
delicate aroma of the finest grades of honey is lost in ex- 
tracting, but this is retained to the full in comb-honey. In 
the production of comb-honey by the small beekeeper, less 
expensive equipment is necessary. The handling of the 
honey is a clean job and there is an attractiveness about 
the product that makes the handling of it a pleasure. The 
wholesale price of comb-honey is higher than that of ex- 
tracted-honey, but the amount obtained from each colony 
is usually less, so that the return is about the same in either 
case. In a good honey-flow the advantage is with the 
comb-honey producer who uses proper methods of manipu- 
lation, while in light honey-flows only the producer of ex- 
tracted-honey gets all the crop. The section is a convenient 
package for retail trade. In this connection it should be 
noted that in comb-honey production the beekeeper pre- 
pares the honey for the consumer while extracted-honey 
is more often sold in wholesale packages. When extracted- 
honey is blended and bottled it usually brings as high a 
retail price as comb-honey, but in this case the beekeeper 
does not do all the work and the bottler gets a good share 
of the profits. Comb-honey meets with more ready sale 
in most markets than does extracted-honey. 

Disadvantages of comb-honey. 

Comb-honey ships poorly and consequently there is often 
considerable loss from breakage, on which account some 
wholesale honey dealers refuse to handle it. In colonies 
run for comb-honey, swarming is a much more serious 
problem than in the larger hives with plenty of empty comb 
space used for extracted-honey. In light honey-flows, bees 



The Production of Comb-Honey 305 

work little or not at all in sections, for bees are induced 
to build comb and store honey in small sections with diffi- 
culty and there is often a loss before they begin work properly. 
A serious drawback is that if honey in the comb granulates it 
is almost a total loss, and usually the only way to save any- 
thing is to melt the wax and honey and market them sepa- 
rately. The section of honey is a difficult package for the 
retail merchant to handle and the careless clerk may often 
spoil a section by running his thumb into it. For this 
reason and also for the sake of cleanliness, comb-honey 
sections in sealed cartons appeal strongly to retailers and 
consumers. 

Restrictions in comb-honey production. 

In view of the demands of the market and the tendency 
toward the production of only the best grades of comb-honey, 
there are certain restrictions which should apply in its pro- 
duction. Where the honey is dark or where honeys from 
various sources are mixed in the combs by honey-flows 
intermingling, extracted-honey should be produced. Honeys 
which granulate quickly, although they may be of fine color, 
are undesirable for comb-honey production. The recent 
increase in the sale of alfalfa comb-honey has caused many 
grocers to hesitate to buy any comb-honey, for fear previous 
unpleasant experiences may be repeated and leave them 
with unsalable granulated comb-honey on hand. Where 
the honey-flows are slow or intermittent, extracted-honey 
production will be found more profitable. These general 
restrictions will of course not apply in certain local market 
conditions. For example, there is demand for buckwheat 
comb-honey in some limited regions, whereas on the general 
market it has no sale. It is evident from a survey of the 
whole field that many beekeepers who now produce comb- 
honey are doing it to their own detriment while an increase 
in the production of comb-honey in the more northern clover 
sections would be beneficial to the honey markets. The 
limitations in comb-honey production will possibly increase 



306 Beekeeping 

the price of the better grades of comb-honey and make it 
profitable for some northern beekeepers again to produce 
comb-honey. The restrictions here enumerated obviously 
require that comb-honey be produced by specialists, for 
the careless beekeeper and the man who can devote but 
little time to his bees cannot hope to produce the finer 
grades of comb-honey, except by the accidents of excep- 
tional honey-flows. 

Honey-house. 

The apparatus for the extensive production of comb- 
honey is rather complex. The first requirement is a build- 
ing for storing apparatus, preparing supers and caring for 
the crop. This building should be rat-proof and is fre- 
quently built over the cellar in which the bees are wintered, 
for commercial comb-honey production is largely restricted 
to the North. In managing out-apiaries, it is customary 
to carry out the empty supers and bring them back com- 
pleted to the central workshop. The place in which the 
comb-honey is stored should be the warmest room in the 
building and should be arranged for artificial heat when 
necessary. It should be sealed to keep out insects and to 
allow fumigation. 

Hives for comb-honey. 

The best hive for comb-honey is a matter of dispute. 
While the Langstroth hive is used more than any other, 
the number of frames to be used is much debated. If the 
locality will permit of the building up of the colony to fill 
ten frames completely, a hive of this capacity is preferable, 
but in many places this is virtually impossible and an eight- 
frame hive gives better results. Of course the colony oc- 
cupies the same hive throughout the year and the need of 
abundant stores in winter gives the preference to the ten- 
frame hive but, by care, the disadvantage of the smaller 
capacity of the eight-frame hive for winter stores may be 
overcome. Whatever hive is used, for the production of 



The Production of Comb-Honey 307 

fine comb-honey accuracy in the manufacture is far more 
essential than if it were to be used in extracting. The 
bee-spaces should be accurate and if self-spacing frames 
are used care should be exercised that the deposits of prop- 
olis do not force them out of place. Sectional hives, in 
which the brood occupies two or more shallow hive-bodies, 
are preferred by some beekeepers, especially among comb- 
honey producers. While they have much to commend 
them, they do not seem to gain in popularity. 

Evolution of the section. 

The early development of the section was suggested in 
an earlier paragraph. The first ones were made of four 
pieces of wood and, after the wide adoption of the Lang- 
stroth frame, sections 4j inches square became in a sense 
standard, since eight of these sections fit into a Langstroth 
frame (of special construction, Fig. 134). In 1873, Alexis 
Fiddes, Centralia, Illinois, made a one-piece section by 
folding thin strips of wood on a saw-cut at the corner and 
to him probably belongs the credit of making the first sec- 
tion of this type. In 1876 he described these in a note in 
" Gleanings in Bee Culture." In 1876, two firms put such 
sections on the market but it appears that previously other 
beekeepers had made them on this plan. In 1883, Jas. 
Forncrook, Watertown, Wisconsin, claimed a basic patent 
on these sections and brought suit against A. I. Root, Medina, 
Ohio, for infringement. A decision of the Circuit Court in 
1884, upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 1888, 
declared this patent valueless on the ground that originality 
was not substantiated. Fiddes is credited with first making 
such sections. Following this decision, the manufacture 
of one-piece sections became general and they practically 
replaced the four-piece sections, except in certain limited 
localities where they are still used. They are now made 
with a V-shaped groove which folds more easily and is 
stronger than the former method of cutting. Basswood is 
used in making these. 



308 



Beekeeping 




Types of sections. 
There is considerable variation in the types of section 

used and correspondingly in the supers (upper stories) and 

fixtures made to hold 
them. The standardiza- 
tion of these appliances 
is often discussed and is 
greatly to be desired. 
There are two styles now 
in common use which 
differ in the method of 
spacing. They are now 

Fig. 125. — Diagram to show method of almost all made of baSS- 
spacing bee-way sections. -, i . ■, , i • i 

wood, ^ inch thick, as 
this bends readily at the corners. The bee- way section 
(Fig. 125) is wide (usu- 
ally If inches, but rarely 
1-f- or 2 inches) and has 
passageways cut in two 
(sometimes three or four) 
sides to allow bees to enter 
the sections, comb build- 
ing in the individual sec- 
tions being limited by plain 

Separators placed between Fig. 126. — Diagram to show method of 

them. The plain sections spacing plain sections - 

(Fig. 126) are narrow, If or If inches, and are separated 

one from another by " fences" on which are cleats to hold 






Fig. 127. — Comparison of plain and bee-way sections. 

the fence away from the section to allow room for the 
passage of bees. The bee-way sections are usually made 



The Production of Comb-Honey 



309 





4j inches square, while the 
plain sections are of the same 
dimensions, or 4 by 5, 3f by 
5 or 4| by 4f. The con- 
struction of these sections 
and the methods of spacing 
are shown by illustrations 

(FiffS. 125 126 and 127). FlG * 128 - ~~ Comparison of tall and 
1-. ' Piii' square sections of equal capacity. 

The advantages of the bee- 
way sections are protection of the honey by the wider 
wood and extra strength, and some markets prefer them. 
The plain sections are simpler in construction, cheaper, 
easily cleaned of propolis and more economical of space 

in packing. The tall 
plain sections give the 
impression of larger 
size when compared 
with a square section 
of equal capacity (Fig. 

Fig. 129. — T-super. 128) . 

Types of supers. 

The various supers used to hold these sections differ in 
the method of support, the protection of the outside of the 
section and the degree 
of free communication 
from section to section. 
The types in most com- 
mon use are illustrated 
(Figs. 129, 130, 131, 132 
and 133) and little needs 
to be added by way of 
description. In the T- 
super (Fig. 129), the sections are supported by strips of tin 
(shaped like an inverted T in cross section), no protection 
being given to the sections on the top or bottom and, when 
2-bee-way sections are used, as is customary, there is no 





Fig. 130. — Super for square bee-way 
sections with section holders. 



310 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 131. 



- Super for square plain sections 
with section holders. 



passageway horizontally in the super. The super for 
square bee-way sections with section holders (Fig. 130) 

is used perhaps more 
generally than any other. 
The sections are not pro- 
tected at the top and the 
communication between 
sections is the same as in 
the T-super. For plain 
sections, the super cor- 
responding to the one 
just described is shown 
in Fig. 131 and for tall sections (4 by 5 inches) the corre- 
sponding type is repre- 
sented in Fig. 132. In the 
two last named, cleated 
fences are used to provide 
passage for the bees ver- 
tically and there is little 
opportunity for horizontal 
passage. To provide pro- 
tection for the top of the 

sections a wide frame is sometimes used, and in the illus- 
tration (Fig. 133) this is shown in combination with 

shallow extracting combs 
at the sides devised for the 
purpose of inducing the 
bees to begin work in the 
supers quickly. The mod- 
ern wide frame is a rever- 
sion to the type formerly 
much used, except that 
the older types (often 
for eight sections, Fig. 
134) had a tin separator 
frame and bee-way sections 




Fig. 132. — Super for tall plain sections. 




Fig. 133. — Super for tall (4| by 4f) 
sections in wide frames. Shallow ex- 
tracting frames are shown at the sides. 



tacked to 
were used. 



one side of the 



The Production of Comb-Honey 



311 




Fig. 134. 



Old type of wide frame for holding 
sections. 



Other equipment. 

The other apparatus needed in extensive comb-honey 
production includes some of the general apiary equipment 
discussed in 
Chapter III. A 
supply of shallow 
extracting supers 
may often be 
used to advan- 
tage to induce 
bees to begin 
storing in supers, 
but the combina- 
tion super (Fig. 
133) is generally 

preferable. If a colony is as strong as it should be at the 
beginning of the honey-flow there will be little need for 
shallow extracting supers. The proper use of bait sec- 
tions is as good as either* of these methods. 

Preparation of the sections. 

The folding of the section and the fastening of the founda- 
tion in place are sometimes done in one machine, but in 
most apiaries these things are accomplished by two opera- 
tions. To fold the sections (Fig. 135) without excessive 
breakage, they must be damp to allow the wood to bend. 
If they are dry they may be moistened by pouring hot 
water down the V-grooves while still in the crate, the stream 
of course being directed only on the grooves. The whole 
crate may be wrapped in a wet blanket for a day before the 
folding. 

The use of foundation is necessary to insure straight 
combs, all of worker cells, and is essential in the production 
of fancy comb-honey. The foundation should be as thin 
as can be used without being torn by the bees and usually 
the grade known in the trade as " thin-super" is preferable. 
While only narrow strips at the top are sometimes used, it 



312 



Beekeeping 



is decidedly preferable to use full sheets to insure uniformity 
of comb. The sheet is fastened to the top of the section, is 
slightly narrower than the inside of the section so that it 
can swing freely and extends to within f to J inch of the 
bottom. To secure better attachment of the comb to the 
bottom, it is becoming more commonly practiced to put 
a f inch strip of foundation at the bottom and then make 
the top piece- of foundation long enough to extend to within 
| to J inch of the bottom starter. The 
desirability of using the bottom starter 
is somewhat determined by the character 
of the flow. 

The pieces of foundation are usually 
fastened in place by a machine in which 
a heated metal plate is brought near or 
in contact with the wood at the point 
where the foundation is to be attached 
and the foundation is brought against 
it. The heated plate is then promptly 
removed and the melted wax fastens 
the foundation to the wood. Grooved 
sections which fasten a full sheet of 
foundation in place as they are folded 
are sometimes used (Fig. 132) while 
some beekeepers (especially in Europe) 
prefer a section split on top and sides 
in which the foundation is continuous 
through a row of sections. 
The work of folding the sections, putting in foundation 
and placing them in supers should be done in advance of 
the honey-flow and this should usually be the winter em- 
ployment of the comb-honey producer. Enough should 
be prepared to care for the maximum crop, for the bee- 
keeper has no time for this work when the rush is on. Three 
supers for each colony should be the minimum number. 
The prepared supers should be carefully protected from 
dust. 




Fig. 



135. — Section 
folder. 



The Production of Comb-Honey 313 

Manipulation of the bees. 

In the successful production of comb-honey, the skill of 
the beekeeper is more exercised than in any other branch of 
beekeeping. From this statement the inference should not 
be made that the producers of comb-honey are, as a class, 
better beekeepers than those who extract their honey, for 
there are many beekeepers who put sections on their colonies 
and yet fail to get the maximum returns and lose the best 
of the crop. It is true, however, that much of our knowledge 
of the best methods of handling bees has come from the 
work of the exceptional comb-honey producers. 

It is useless to expect a weak colony to work well in sec- 
tions and it is therefore first of all necessary for the comb- 
honey producer to see that each colony has an abundance 
of workers at the beginning of the honey-flow, as described 
in an earlier chapter. In the building up of the apiary in 
preparation for the honey-flow, it is often impossible to get 
all colonies up to the standard and it is a quite common 
practice to utilize the weaker colonies for extracted-honey 
production or to take frames of brood from the weaker 
colonies to build up those of nearly full strength (p. 259), 
thereby practically abandoning the weakest colonies for 
honey-production. 

Keeping bees in proper condition. 

If a colony is of maximum strength when the honey-flow 
begins, it is ready for the harvest. Every hive should be 
packed with brood and honey and should have an abundance 
of young bees. If the colony has previously occupied two 
stories, as many of them should if properly manipulated, 
they are reduced to one story and any extra frames of brood 
are used to build up colonies that need them. This crowd- 
ing of the brood-nest, so essential to the highest success, 
is, however, just the condition favorable for swarming, and 
unless care is exercised the efforts of the beekeeper are 
rendered less effective. If the colony casts a swarm the 
working force is reduced and the two parts are not able 



314 Beekeeping 

to do as much as is possible without such a division. On 
the other hand, the manipulations of the beekeeper may 
prevent swarming, but still the bees may be put in such a 
condition that they do not work well. It is necessary not 
only that the bees be kept from swarming but that the 
gathering instinct shall overpower all other activities. In- 
crease in the number of colonies during the honey-flow or 
just before it is therefore expensive and should be avoided. 
Swarming is a far more serious problem in comb-honey 
production than in any other type of beekeeping. The 
beekeeper is therefore called upon to exercise all his skill 
in preventing and controlling this tendency. The manipu- 
lations used to prevent swarming are discussed in an earlier 
chapter. In comb-honey production the tendency to swarm 
is so marked that an examination of each colony once in 
seven to ten days is usually necessary to do the things that 
conditions may call for. In case swarms issue in spite of 
the precautionary measures, various methods are available 
for handling the swarm and for the disposal of the brood 
to best advantage, which have been previously discussed 
(p. 275). 

Manipulation of supers. 

One of the most important factors in success with comb- 
honey is putting the supers on in the right order and at the 
right time. This may not only do much toward preventing 
swarming, but is an important stimulus to storing the maxi- 
mum amount of honey. No general rule can be laid down 
for the number of supers that should be put on a colony; 
they are simply units in the part of the hive devoted to 
storing which must be given to the colony as needed and 
not before or after. By proper management supers may be 
put on slightly before they are needed but they should 
usually not all be put on at once. Many beekeepers make 
their greatest mistake in this feature and wait until one 
super is filled and then remove it, substituting an empty 
one if needed. This not only cramps the colony more 



The Production of Comb-Honey 



315 



than necessary but, when the new super is put on, the bees 
go into it almost as slowly as they do into a super given 
at the beginning of a flow. In the meantime the brood- 
chamber is becoming clogged with honey at the expense of 
the brood. To give supers as needed necessitates careful 
observation of the sources of nectar. Supers should be 
given in time so that there is never a lack of some space 
for comb building. Furthermore, space for ripening nectar 
is needed and comb building should progress steadily so 
that the bees will never have honey for which there are no 
empty cells. If, early in the honey-flow, nectar is coming 
in rapidly, a new super may be added to strong colonies as 







* 



3 _ 



gr 


^ 


1 




3 = 


-— " 






2 «=■ 


3 — 




/ =» 




2 — > 




4 _ 




4 _ 


^ 






~_ t 



Fig. 136. — Diagram showing arrangement of the supers. 

soon as work is well begun in the one put on previously. 
Weaker colonies should of course not be given supers so 
rapidly. In any event, supers should be added before the 
bees are in actual need of more storing space. 

The position of new supers is to be determined by the 
probable future needs of the colony. If the prospects in- 
dicate that an additional super will be filled, it should be 
put below the supers already on, next to the brood-chamber, 
while if there is a probability that the additional super will 
not be used it should be placed on top, thus crowding the 
bees into the earlier supers. In slow honey-flows, supers 
may also be put on top. In a good honey-flow an empty 
super should be kept on top at all times so that it is avail- 
able to the bees if the beekeeper is delayed in reaching the 



316 Beekeeping 

colony to give it more room. The proper order of the 
supers on the hive is shown in Fig. 136, it being assumed 
in this case that super 5 is the one which is used near the 
end of the flow. It will be noticed in the case of supers 
1, 2 and 3, that after being placed just above the brood- 
chamber to be started, they are then put on the top in the 
next move. This carries up the wax-building bees where 
they are as far from the brood-chamber as possible and this 
is perhaps an important factor in swarm prevention. 

Removal of supers. 

Comb-honey intended for market should be removed as 
soon as possible after it is finished to prevent discoloration 
of the cappings, known as " travel stain." The extensive 
beekeeper does not have time to remove the sections in- 
dividually but should give additional room just rapidly 
enough to make it possible to complete all the sections in a 
super about the same time. After the super is removed 
there are often some that are not completed and these may 
be sorted out in the shop and the unfinished ones may be 
put in supers and given to colonies. C. C. Miller believes 
that some colonies are better at this finishing work than 
others and so he chooses certain ones for this work. Dur- 
ing the finishing, bees should be crowded to insure its being 
completed before the honey-flow ceases. 

At the close of the honey-flow, the surplus space should 
be reduced and all supers in which no work has been done 
should be removed. As soon as practical, the surplus 
space should be reduced to one super but there should 
always be room for the ripening of new nectar. If desired, 
extracting combs may be used to receive the honey at the 
close of the honey-flow. 

Caring for the crop. 

In a heavy honey-flow most of the honey is removed 
before the flow ceases. In this case the bees are readily 
removed by smoking and brushing them out. At the close 



The Production of Comb-Honey 317 

of the honey-flow, all the supers should be removed to pre- 
vent honey from being carried down to the brood-chamber 
and to keep the bees from propolizing the sections excessively. 
At this time bee-escapes (Fig. 31) greatly increase the ease 
of taking off supers and, while they are useful at any time, 
they are specially helpful after the honey-flow ceases. The 
honey should be taken to the shop and protected carefully 
from robbing bees. 

Preparation of bait sections. 

Before storing the supers, any unfilled sections should 
be sorted out and the partially filled ones may be given 
back to the bees to be emptied. If no disease is present 
in the apiary or in the neighborhood and if there are a con- 
siderable number of such sections, they may simply be 
exposed where the bees can get the honey from them and 
they should be left there until a day or two after the bees 
have ceased to visit them. Bees often leave sealed honey 
untouched under these circumstances. If there are only 
a few supers, they may be stacked on colonies and should 
be left there for a day after the bees have taken out the 
honey. In this way excitement is reduced to the minimum 
and general robbing is prevented. The emptied sections 
should then be saved for bait sections the following season. 

Storage in supers. 

The full supers are so placed in the honey-house as to 
permit free circulation of air, by laying them crosswise or 
by putting sticks between the supers. The storage room 
must be kept dry with the windows open (but screened) 
during warm weather. During damp, cool weather, the 
windows should be closed and the room may be heated 
artificially, sudden changes in temperature being avoided. 
If wax-moths are abundant, the honey may be fumigated 
with sulphur fumes or carbon bisulfide (p. 414). 

Comb-honey should be prepared for market as speedily 
as practical after its removal from the hive. This is specially 



318 Beekeeping 

true if the honey granulates quickly. If it is necessary to 
store it until cold weather, the storage room must be kept 
continuously warm and dry. 

Bulk comb-honey. 

In Texas and in some other parts of the South, honey is 
frequently sold in the comb, being cut from large combs to 
any size desired. These pieces are usually put into a can, 
extracted-honey being poured over them to fill the spaces. 
This is commonly known as " chunk honey," but one German 
writer on beekeeping, in referring to this American product, 
inadvertently changed the ch to j. The advantages in pro- 
ducing honey in this form are : (1) it ships well ; (2) crowd- 
ing of the bees is not so necessary since perfect capping is 
not essential ; (3) the bees work more readily in the larger 
combs, and (4) the beekeeper is not called upon to exercise 
so much skill in the manipulation of the colonies. The 
manipulations more nearly approach those incident to the 
production of extracted-honey. Since such honey usually 
sells readily locally and since beekeepers claim to receive 
relatively more for it than for extracted-honey, no serious 
objection can be raised to its production, but beekeepers 
should be warned that the general honey markets make 
no demand for honey of this type. Bulk comb-honey is 
produced in small quantities in all parts of the United States 
but, except in the regions mentioned, its production is con- 
fined to the less skilled beekeepers. 

Bulk comb-honey for home use. 

When all the honey produced is for home consumption, 
it is an excellent plan to have all the honey stored in shallow 
extracting frames, the length of the regular frames, but 
only 5f inches deep. Thin-super foundation may be used 
and the frames should not be wired. After being filled, the 
frames may be stored in supers and a family that consumes 
honey freely (as all families should) will make short work 
of the honey in a frame. For serving this honey, a con- 



The Production of Comb-Honey 319 

venient, though perhaps not artistic, method is to put the 
comb in a tureen. The frames may be refilled with founda- 
tion again and again. This is recommended to beekeepers 
with few colonies as simpler, cheaper and more profitable 
than comb-honey production. 

Cut comb-honey for market. 

Another style of package has recently been devised by 
the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, which is attractive and 
promises to have a great future. Small pieces of comb 
are cut, drained of the honey in the cut cells, wrapped in 
two thicknesses of waxed paper and finally put in an attrac- 
tive carton. A number of these cartons are then packed 
in a box for delivery. The individual cartons are sold in 
dining cars, restaurants and hotels, naturally at a high 
price for the amount of honey served. So far the demand 
for this honey is limited, but beekeepers so situated that 
they have their winters free to put up and sell such honey 
may find it profitable. The comparative ease with which 
honey can be handled in this way suggests the desirability 
of a larger piece of honey, weighing perhaps a pound, wrapped 
in the same way. Such honey would ship better, it would 
all be " fancy" and should bring a high price on the market 
when a trade is built up. As far as the writer knows, this 
has not been tried in the United States. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MARKETING THE HONEY CROP 

The production of honey necessitates skill in the manage- 
ment of bees but the preparation of the crop for market and 
the selling of the honey are equally important to financial 
success and are sometimes equally difficult. In the follow- 
ing discussion, the procedure in getting honey into its final 
package ready for the consumer will first be considered, 
after which some general principles of honey selling, which 
apply to all types of honey, will be briefly given. 

PREPARATION OF EXTRACTED-HONEY FOR MARKET 

The beekeeping part of the work may be considered as 
ended when the honey reaches the tank or barrel. Honeys 
from different sources should so far as possible be extracted 
separately, for they are not of equal money value and the 
mixing of honeys of two colors or flavors usually reduces 
the wholesale price of the mixture to that of the least valuable. 

Wholesale packages. 

The usual wholesale package is the 5-gallon (60-pound) 
square tin can, such cans most often being shipped two 
in a crate (Fig. 137). Most of the foreign honeys that 
reach the United States markets come in barrels and 
these are also much used by southern beekeepers. In the 
West they are rarely used and are not considered safe. 
Considerable care must be exercised in their choice and in 
preparing them to receive the honey. Second-hand alcohol 
or whisky barrels are suitable, provided they have not been 

320 



Marketing the Honey Crop 



321 




charred, but it is better to have them of some wood softer 
than oak. They must be kept in a dry place and before 
using must be made as dry as it is possible to get them, the 
hoops thoroughly tightened and the barrels tested. The 
inside may then be coated with paraffin as an extra pre- 
caution, but it should be 
remembered that the 
barrels must be tight 
first. If the wood in 
the barrel is wet, honey 
will take up this moist- 
ure, causing the wood 
to shrink and the barrel 
to leak. The usual sizes 
have a capacity of about 
thirty gallons, but those 
holding fifty gallons are 
frequently used. Unless 
one is producing a cheap FlG " 137 -~ Cl ? te holding two 5 - gallon 

r » r honey cans. 

grade of honey for which 

a cheap package is required, it is better and safer to 

use the 5-gallon tin cans. 

Retail packages for local markets. 

In preparing extracted-honey for the local trade, it is 
customary to put it in cans or tin buckets of 2§, 5 or 10 
pounds capacity. Fruit jars and jelly glasses are also 
commonly used. These containers can be considered only 
as articles to hold honey and are entirely unsuitable for a 
market demanding neat attractive packages. They may 
often be used in less exacting markets and carry with them 
the advantage of being useful after the honey is eaten. 
To the beekeeper, they are desirable on account of their 
low cost in case his market will not pay a good price for his 
honey. Many beekeepers are, however, guilty of putting 
fancy honey into these unattractive receptacles, thereby 
stamping their product as a cheap article. 



322 Beekeeping 

High-class retail packages. 

The bottling of honey for the higher class markets requires 
considerable skill and the beekeeper usually leaves this work 
to the jobber, who has the necessary equipment and facilities 
for buying honey from various sources. There can be little 
question, however, that many beekeepers could well afford 
to go to the additional trouble and expense of putting honey 
in attractive, artistic packages for the trade that is ready to 
pay a good price for a high-class product. 

An important consideration is the shape of the bottle. 
If possible this should not be a stock bottle such as is used 
either by other beekeepers or is obviously employed in the 
bottling of other commodities. An odd shape or a bottle 
made for the purpose on an original design will prove a good 
advertisement. The neck of the bottle must of course be 
wide. A cheap, homely label will do much to render a 
package unattractive. Above all, a label should not be 
used which obviously is used by hundreds of beekeepers 
and which has the name of the producer printed in a space 
left vacant in the making of the original design. It is possible 
to make labels in this way which do not tell their history too 
loudly, but to a bottler who sells honey in considerable quan- 
tities the expense of having a distinctive, attractive label 
designed and lithographed will be many times repaid. The 
beekeeper should note that the extensive bottlers have 
learned this. 

Blending. 

In a single apiary it is impossible to get honey of the same 
flavor and color year after year because of differences in the 
nectar secretion, due to climatic differences. It is rarely 
desirable to attempt to bottle honey of one source, such as 
white clover, because of seasonal variations which the con- 
sumer does not understand. If, however, honeys from two 
or more sources are blended, the seasonal variations are 
hidden and it is possible to give the consumer honey which 
looks the same and has the same taste year after year. In 



Marketing the Honey Crop 323 

making up a blend, it is furthermore not desirable to use 
all water-white honeys, for at some time the supply of such 
honeys may be limited, and the consumer will not under- 
stand why honey of a certain brand has suddenly become 
darker. It must be remembered that the average consumer 
is ignorant of the facts that honey varies and that honeys 
from different sources are unlike in color and flavor and 
it is useless for one bottler to attempt to educate the entire 
community on these points in which the consumers have 
no interest. If he sells pure honey that has a good flavor 
and if he can duplicate it when desired no further informa- 
tion is asked by the average consumer. In making a blend 
it is a good plan to include some sage or tupelo honey as 
these granulate slowly and granulation injures the salability 
of bottled honey. An important consideration is the choice 
of honeys which can be obtained in quantity year after 
year. To bottle honey for the better markets, it is, there- 
fore, usually necessary to buy some from various sources 
and the beekeeper who retails honey on a considerable scale 
should not depend solely on his own apiaries to supply him. 
In fact, even an extensive series of out-apiaries will not 
go far toward supplying an energetic salesman. 

Argument for blending. 

In the preparation of this chapter the author consulted a 
beekeeper of experience and the preceding paragraph was 
criticized on the ground that the blending of honeys hides 
the characteristic flavor of honey from each source and, 
therefore, the flavor of a blend is usually inferior to that 
of some of the honeys that go to make it. To a connoisseur 
this is true, but a comparison with another commodity may 
serve to show that to the average palate this is not the case. 
The average purchaser of tea buys a certain brand of pack- 
age tea because he knows it is dependable and uniform. He 
does not know nor does he care what teas are mixed in this 
blend, but he may know enough about tea to know that an 
individual kind of tea varies and he does not like the varia- 



324 Beekeeping 

tion. On the other hand, there are connoisseurs in tea who, 
through education and cultivation of taste, are just as 
particular about the teas they use as the beekeeper is about 
his honey. Probably we could all become educated in teas 
but do not consider it worth while. Similarly, the consum- 
ing public could become educated in the flavors of honeys 
but it is not considered worth the effort. Therefore, it is 
to the interest of the beekeeper to furnish a honey which 
is the same in color and flavor year after year, so that the 
variation which comes with honejr from one source may be 
eliminated. It is almost a crime in the eyes of a northern 
beekeeper to mix any other honey with that from white 
clover but, as he is not mixing honey for himself, he should 
give the consuming public what it demands. 

Heating honey. 

In mixing honeys from various sources and in liquefying 
for bottling those that may be granulated, they must be 
heated. Direct heat must not be employed and it is a bad 
practice to run steam pipes through the honey tank. Heat- 
ing must always be done in a double boiler and the tempera- 
ture of no part of the honey should ever exceed 160° F. A 
higher temperature darkens it and spoils the flavor. A 
high temperature not only drives off the volatile substances 
which give honey the aroma, but a decomposition of a 
small part of the sugars takes place, which causes darkening. 
In this decomposition, products are formed which cause 
honey to respond positively to one of the chemical tests for 
invert sugar, which is a common honey adulterant. The 
beekeeper who overheats his honey not only injures it but 
he may find himself accused of adulteration. The best 
plan is to bring the honeys to a temperature of about 130° F. 
and to hold this temperature for two or three hours or until 
every crystal has dissolved. The temperature is then raised 
quickly to 160° F., at which point the honey should be put 
into warm bottles and hermetically sealed while hot. The 
bottles should be filled as full as possible so that there will 



Marketing the Honey Crop 325 

not be large air spaces at the tops. The mixing and heating 
tank should be deep and the honey should be drawn from 
the bottom to avoid the scum which rises to the top and to 
free the honey entirely from air bubbles which not only 
detract from the appearance but hasten granulation. 

Granulation of honey in bottles spoils the appearance but 
by using honeys which granulate slowly {e.g. sage and tupelo) 
in the blend and by treating in the manner just described, 
granulation may be prevented for a considerable time. 
Beekeepers often put on their labels the erroneous statement 
that all honeys granulate and that this is a proof of purity. 
Artificial invert sugars which are sometimes used in the 
adulteration of extracted-honej^ frequently granulate quickly. 
The adding of glucose to prevent granulation, without so 
indicating on the label, is of course adulteration and is not 
only dishonest but unlawful. 

The granulation of honey after bottling is retarded (1) if 
the honey is free from air bubbles, (2) if the bottle is filled 
to the top, (3) if no scum has been poured into the bottle 
with the honey and (4) if not a single honey crystal is un- 
melted at the time of bottling. If these precautions are 
taken even the rapidly granulating honeys will remain 
liquid for a considerable period. 

PREPARATION OF COMB-HONEY FOR MARKET 

In comb-honey production the beekeeper must do more 
of the work of preparing his product for the consumer since 
he is producing honey in retail packages. Recently some 
honey jobbers have been buying honey and cleaning and 
grading it themselves, because so many beekeepers fail to 
do this work carefully, but a better price can be obtained for 
comb-honey if it is properly graded and cleaned before selling. 

Cleaning the sections of propolis. 

There is usually some propolis on the sections which 
should be removed. Since the removed propolis adheres 



326 Beekeeping 

to other sections if it comes in contact with them, it is best 
to have a bench made with a box or tray into which the 
propolis will fall or to raise the sections an inch or two above 
the table top on a block while they are being cleaned. These 
appliances also make it possible to reach the bottom of the 
section in scraping. Propolis is usually scraped by hand, a 
sharp steel case-knife being used. If the knife does not 
remove all propolis and stain, sandpaper will complete the 
work. The scraping of sections requires care to prevent 
damaging of the honey. 

Grading. 

In no other type of honey package is so much care needed 
to grade properly as in comb-honey. The grading rules 
which are most applicable to all conditions of comb-honey 
production throughout the United States are those adopted 
by the National Bee Keepers' Association, February 13, 1913, 
which are here given. 

Sections of comb honey are to be graded: First, as to finish; 
second, as to color of honey ; and third, as to weight. The sections 
of honey in any given case are to be so nearly alike in these three 
respects that any section shall be representative of the contents of 
the case. 

I. Finish: 

1. Extra Fancy. — Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly 
attached to the four sides, the sections to be free from propolis or 
other pronounced stain, combs and cappings white, and not more 
than six unsealed cells on either side. 

2. Fancy. — Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached 
to the four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced 
stain, comb and cappings white, and not more than six unsealed 
cells on either side exclusive of the outside row. 

3. No. 1. — Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached to 
the four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced 
stain, comb and cappings white to slightly off color, and not more 
than forty unsealed cells, exclusive of the outside row. 

4. No. 2. — Comb not projecting beyond the box, attached to the 
sides not less than two-thirds of the way around, and not more than 
sixty unsealed cells exclusive of the row adjacent to the box. 



Marketing the Honey Crop 327 

II. Color: 

On the basis of color of the honey, comb honey is to be classified 
as : first, white ; second, light amber ; third, amber ; and fourth, 
dark. , 

III. Weight: 

1. Heavy. — No section designated as heavy to weigh less than 
fourteen ounces. 

2. Medium. — No section designated as medium to weigh less 
than twelve ounces. 

3. Light. — No section designated as light to weigh less than ten 
ounces. 

In describing honey, three words or symbols are to be used, the 
first being descriptive of the finish, the second of color, and the 
third of weight. As for example : Fancy, white, heavy (F-W-H) ; 
No. 1, amber, medium (1-A-M), etc. In this way any of the pos- 
sible combinations of finish, color and weight can be briefly 
described. 

Cull honey. 

Cull honey shall consist of the following: Honey packed in 
soiled second-hand cases or that in badly stained or propolized 
sections ; sections containing pollen, honey-dew honey, honey 
showing signs of granulation, poorly ripened, sour or " weeping " 
honey ; sections with comb projecting beyond the box or well at- 
tached to the box less than two-thirds the distance around its inner 
surface ; sections with more than 60 unsealed cells, exclusive of the 
row adjacent to the box ; leaking, injured, or patched-iip sections ; 
sections weighing less than ten ounces. 

The Colorado Honey Producers' Association on December 
13, 1911, adopted a set of grading rules which are well adapted 
to the market conditions which Colorado beekeepers meet. 
They are not suitable for grading all comb-honey because the 
requirements on color, weight and finish are not sufficiently 
separated. These rules have recently been revised. 

In the grading rules of the National Bee Keepers' Associa- 
tion the weight is classed in three divisions, but, since the 
net-weight amendment is in force (since September 3, 1914) 
and since comb-honey in a section is considered a package 
of food, these divisions are no longer suitable. It is now 
necessary under the law that each section of honey which 



328 



Beekeeping 



enters interstate commerce be marked with the net weight. 
This is construed to mean the weight exclusive of the wood 
but including the wax. Sections have quite commonly 
been called " one-pound sections," but unless a comb is 
exceptionally well filled it does not weigh a full pound. Bee- 
keepers have usually sold these by the piece but the con- 
suming public has known little of the actual weights. The 
name " one-pound section" is incorrect and should be 
dropped. This law will benefit the beekeepers who use 
full-size sections and will help to expose the few who have 
been using undersizes. 

In grading comb-honey some beekeepers place the sec- 
tions directly into shipping cases, but since the picture of 
each grade is a mental one only, it is perhaps preferable 
to make separate piles of each grade where they can be seen 
throughout the grading. Of course when similar sections 
enough to fill a case are ready they may be cased, marked 
and prepared for shipment. It will be found advantageous, 
especially to the retailer, to make smaller sub-grades to 
give greater uniformity to the contents of each case. 

Shipping cases. 

The case for shipping comb-honey which is most com- 
monly used is one holding 24 sections in one tier (Fig. 138), 
but a two-tier case is preferred by many western beekeepers. 

Other types are used 
for certain local mar- 
kets. It is customary 
also to make the 
shipping cases with 
glass fronts so that the 
case may be used for 
displaying the honey. 
A shipping case of 
corrugated paper with- 
out glass is gaining in 
popularity. 




Fig. 138. 



Shipping cases for comb- 
honey. 



Marketing the Honey Crop 329 

Glazed sections. 

It is not unusual for pieces of glass to be fastened to each 
side of sections by means of tacks or tin triangles or by 
strips of paper before being offered for sale, thus protecting 
the honey from dust and insects. Formerly it was not un- 
common to sell the package by weight, in which event the 
glass was sold at a considerable profit. The amendment 
to the Food and Drugs Act requiring that each package of 
food be marked with its net weight will probably injure the 
market for glazed sections. 

Use of cartons. 

The modern retail market deals chiefly in package goods 
and the purchaser usually sees only a carton or case and not 
the food that he buys. Similarly comb-honey is now fre- 
quently put in a carton and this plan commends itself be- 
cause of the security from dust and insects. The cheap 
cartons that slip over filled sections are not so efficient 
neither are they so attractive as those that may be com- 
pletely sealed. Most cartons are now made of thin card- 
board but a sealed corrugated paper carton would be more 
serviceable in the delivery of the honey from the retailer. 
The comments made on labels for extracted-honey may 
well apply to the printing on the comb-honey carton. In- 
dividuality and attractiveness are essential in making an 
appeal to the fancy trade and the carton will appeal to 
the consumer as a more sanitary package than an exposed 
section. When cartons are used, the corrugated paper 
shipping case is preferable since there is no advantage in a 
glass front. 

Shipping comb-honey. 

The fragile comb in a section of honey carries consider- 
able weight as compared with the heavier reinforced combs 
in the brood-chamber of the hive. In cool weather, when 
the wax becomes brittle, it is less capable of withstanding 
jars and at any time comb-honey is not capable of with- 



330 Beekeeping 

standing much hard usage. Naturally a small package 
like a single shipping case is easily thrown about by careless 
expressmen and consequently it is safer to ship in larger 
packages. For this reason and also to protect the wooden 
shipping cases from dirt and to prevent the breakage of the 
glass, several shipping cases are usually packed together in 
a crate. Comb-honey should be shipped to its final destina- 
tion before cold weather. For car load shipments it is safe 
to pack in a car without crates since the shipping cases are 
not handled individually en route. 

PREPARATION OF BULK COMB-HONEY FOR MARKET 

The packing of bulk comb-honey does not differ essentially 
from that for extracted-honey except that the cans or bottles 
must have openings sufficiently large to admit the pieces of 
comb. 

The packing of the small pieces of cut-out comb has been 
sufficiently described in the paragraph in which they were 
discussed. 

PREPARATION OF GRANULATED HONEY FOR MARKET 

As has been shown previously, some honeys granulate 
quickly to a semi-solid condition and some beekeepers have 
developed a market for it in this form. Alfalfa honey is 
exceptionally fine for this purpose. The honey may be 
poured while in a liquid condition into special paper bags 
or oyster pails and allowed to granulate before being sold, 
though such packages are somewhat crude. A better 
method is to allow it to granulate in larger vessels (such as 
5-gallon square cans) after which it is removed and cut into 
bricks as butter is cut. It is then wrapped in waxed paper 
and put in a neat carton. Since this is a comparatively 
unknown article of food to the average consumer, its source 
and nature should be stated on the package. Granulated 
honey should not be allowed to remain on store shelves 
until warm weather, for the crystals may dissolve, causing 



Marketing the Honey Crop 331 

considerable loss and inconvenience. The market for such 
honey is not well developed but it is worthy of considerable 
attention since many people after trying this honey prefer 
it to liquid honey. 

WORDING OF LABELS 

Beekeepers are often at a loss to know just what should 
be put on labels in order to conform with the various pro- 
visions of pure food laws. In the case of the net-weight 
amendment of the Federal Food and Drugs Act, the require- 
ment is definite, that the net weight or volume shall be indi- 
cated. Since bottles vary somewhat, it is best to test a 
number to find the minimum and then have on the label, 
"Net weight not less than — oz." or "Minimum weight — 
oz." Aside from this there is no difficulty. If the label 
tells the truth about the contents, the beekeeper will not get 
into trouble. He should not label his honey "Pure clover 
honey" if it is partly sage honey, nor should he attempt to 
deceive the customer by labeling it "Clover brand honey" 
if it is not as nearly all clover honey as it is possible to get. 
Some beekeepers have worried over the fact that even in 
the purest honey there is possibly a little nectar from some 
other source. If this causes worry it may be entirely avoided 
by stating the exact facts. Furthermore it must be remem- 
bered that the officials who enforce these laws are sensible 
men and a slight discrepancy on the label would probably 
not be considered a violation of the law, provided there is 
evidently no intent of misrepresentation. The various pure 
food laws are designed to protect the purchaser against 
fraud and the honest producer against dishonest competi- 
tion. It may perhaps be considered as ingratitude, there- 
fore, if a beekeeper complains at the necessity of telling the 
exact truth on his label. Beekeepers are almost unani- 
mously opposed to the adulteration of honey and should 
do everything possible to aid in the enforcement of these 
laws. 



332 Beekeeping 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE HOME MARKET 

Too many beekeepers ship their honey as soon as it is 
marketable to the chief honey markets. While there is 
demand in the wholesale markets under normal market 
conditions for all the honey that is shipped in, there are many 
beekeepers who could dispose of their own crops and even 
buy considerable honey from other beekeepers to sell in the 
local markets. Of course, the retail price should be con- 
siderably more than the wholesale price, and if the beekeeper 
does not have other work that brings him more than the 
retail profit he may well turn his attention to the develop- 
ment of his home market. He will probably find that his 
home town consumes little honey until he undertakes to 
advertise his products, but the experience of those who have 
tried it is that the per capita consumption of honey is easily 
increased to many times what it was formerly. Individual 
cases of success could easily be enumerated. If the bee- 
keeper is in a small town it is probably known to many of 
the inhabitants that he keeps bees and in a larger town or 
city he can easily let this be known without much cost for 
advertising. The consumer will have confidence in the 
purit}' of the honey if it is bought directly from the producer, 
and if the beekeeper will go from house to house letting the 
housewives sample his honey, he will not only sell hundreds 
of pounds at a better price than the wholesale price but will 
provide a good food as a substitute for the cheap jams and 
syrups so much used. 

To stimulate trade and create public comment, no better 
advertisement can be obtained than an observatory hive 
filled with bees. When such a hive is placed in a store 
window, the sidewalk is often blocked with the curious. 
Interest can be increased by giving an exhibition of handling 
bees or of extracting honey ; the crowd will grow and people 
who have not tasted honey for years will remember that 
they are fond of it and will buy some. A peculiarity of honey 
is that it is usually easier to sell the second bottle or section 



Marketing the Honey Crop 333 

than it is the first. The ingenious beekeeper will think of a 
dozen ways to use his bees or his commonest manipulations 
as advertising matter and he will probably be surprised not 
only at the ignorance but also at the interest of the public 
concerning anything pertaining to bees. Another fruitful 
field is found in making exhibits at fairs. 

In deciding the price of his product either at wholesale 
or retail, the beekeeper should consult the crop reports. 
The bee journals give valuable information on this subject, 
and in 1914 the United States Department of Agriculture 
through the Bureau of Crop Estimates began to furnish 
crop reports on honey. In Ontario the Beekeepers' Asso- 
ciation furnishes its members with this information. 

CO-OPERATIVE SELLING 

In discussing the sale of honey, mention should be made 
of co-operative selling. The best example of this to be 
found in the beekeeping industry in the United States is 
the Colorado Honey Producers' Association, which for 
several years has successfully looked after the interests of its 
members in the purchase of supplies and in the sale of honey. 
This organization is similar in nature to the agricultural 
co-operative organizations found in Europe and parts of 
the United States. Beekeepers who have similar honey and 
who are so situated as to be unable to develop home markets 
should consider the possibilities of this method of selling at 
wholesale. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE PRODUCTION AND CARE OF BEESWAX 

Beeswax was formerly an important part of the products 
of the beekeeper for, at the close of the season, certain colo- 
nies were chosen to be killed after which the honey and wax 
were removed. With the introduction of modern methods, 
honey-production increased, but there was less beeswax 
since the combs are not destroyed, except as they are acci- 
dentally broken. In spite of this entire change of policy 
on the part of the beekeeper, beeswax is a part of the product 
of the apiary which should not be neglected. Cappings 
from extracting, pieces of comb built in parts of the hive 
where frames have accidentally not been supplied, burr and 
brace combs and combs accidentally broken in extracting 
may be mentioned as sources which in the aggregate furnish 
the beekeeper with a considerable amount of wax, while 
occasionally the combs of diseased colonies still further in- 
crease the supply. The preparation of this wax for market 
often involves considerable labor and the beekeeper too often 
neglects it on that account. However, if pieces of comb 
are carefully preserved from wax-moth larvae, they may be 
kept until there is an accumulation sufficient to justify the 
necessary expenditure of time or combs may now be sent 
to central stations or dealers for rendering. 

Rendering the wax. 

Beeswax is ordinarily removed from the combs by heat. 
Cappings from extracting and new combs may be melted 
up and the wax allowed to harden in a cake since these con- 
tain little or no foreign matter. If any dirt is present, it 

334 



The Production and Care of Beeswax 335 




Fig. 139. — Double boiler for melting combs. 



will settle at the bottom in cooling and may be cut from the 

cake. A common method for melting combs and pieces of 

wax is by the use of the solar wax extractor, the combs being 

put in a box covered with glass and the heat of the sun, 

being confined by the glass, melts the wax, which runs into 

a lower compartment where it hardens. In Hawaii, the 

beekeepers have unusually large solar extractors to melt 

their cappings as 

well as other 

pieces of comb. 

A more rapid 

method is to place 

the combs in a 

double boiler (Fig. 

139), the combs 

being either hung 

on cross supports 

or thrown on a 

screen (like that 

in an uncapping tank) and as the wax melts it runs out a 

gate provided for the purpose. A less efficient method is 

to boil combs in water and skim off the wax. Doctor Miller 

finds a dripping pan in the oven of the kitchen stove a 

good substitute for a solar extractor in the winter. 

Wax presses. 

These methods are satisfactory for clean combs, free 
from pollen, cocoons and other substances, but in the case 
of old combs much of the wax adheres to the cocoons 
and is not liberated. To render old combs they should (if 
the weather is cold) be broken up and then soaked in water 
after which they should be put into a sack, heated and pressed 
under strong pressure while hot. In this way most of the 
wax is removed from the cocoons. There are three types 
of press in common use. In the steam heated press the 
mass of comb is kept hot by steam generated below dur- 
ing the process of pressing out the wax, which drops down 



336 



Beekeeping 



and is drained off. In the hot water press (Fig. 140), the 
whole process takes place under hot water, the liberated 
wax rising to the top where it is removed. A method in 
common use is to melt up the combs in a boiler and dip off 
the melted mass into a burlap bag which is then subjected 
to pressure, no additional heat being supplied. Small presses 
of these types may be purchased from dealers in supplies 
but if there is much wax to be rendered, larger machines of 

the hot water type 
should be made to 
which more pressure 
may be applied. In 
any type of press it is 
desirable to press the 
bag of comb thor- 
oughly and then loosen 
it to allow the combs 
to be filled with water 
before pressing again. 
This may be repeated 
several times until no 
more wax is liberated. 
It is advised that 
soft water be used 
in rendering combs. 
The residue after the removal of the wax is commonly 
known among beekeepers as "slumgum'' and since bee- 
keepers seem to have a vocabulary of their own and since 
there is no other name for this substance we must perforce 
accept it. In most cases, slumgum contains a considerable 
amount of beeswax, some samples supposed to be practi- 
cally free being found on analysis to contain forty per cent 
beeswax. Cocoons entirely free from beeswax are brown- 
ish-gray and cannot be pressed into a hard cake. If then 
the slumgum after removal from the press forms a black 
hard mass, the beekeeper may rest assured that it still con- 
tains wax. This may be shown quickly by putting some in 




Fig. 140. — Hot water (Hershiser) wax press. 



The Production and Care of Beeswax 337 

the fire, where it burns briskly. It is almost permissible 
to believe that every man who makes a wax press thinks 
that no other wax press could ever equal it and some of the 
most powerful and elaborate ones that have been demon- 
strated to the author were the least efficient. 

Removing wax by dissolving. 

In Europe, the wax in slumgum is sometimes dissolved 
out with turpentine or some other light oil and the solvent 
is then regained by distillation, but there is no record of this 
being done on a commercial scale in America. By no other 
means can all the wax be removed, but it is claimed that 
this " extracted wax" differs slightly both physically and 
chemically from wax removed by melting. If a solvent is 
used carbon tetrachloride would probably be the most 
satisfactory. 

Cleaning wax. 

After the wax is extracted, it usually contains many for- 
eign particles. While still in a liquid condition the wax 
should be placed over an inch or more of water in a vessel 
which will conserve the heat so that the wax can remain 
liquid for a considerable time. If a heavy wooden box is 
available this is good, but even better results may be accom- 
plished by packing a thinner vessel in a box filled with saw- 
dust. If it can remain liquid for twenty-four hours or more 
the results are best. Just before hardening (when the tem- 
perature is just above the melting point of wax) it should 
be carefully dipped off from the top into vessels to cool. 
These vessels should either have the top wider than the 
bottom or have smooth straight sides which are covered 
with a thin layer of honey just before the cooling wax is 
poured in. Every beekeeper should know that wax and 
honey never mix. The particles of dirt will have settled to 
the bottom and when the wax appears discolored the re- 
mainder may be left to harden in the insulated vessel. The 
dirt may then be scraped away from this cake, and if there 



338 Beekeeping 

is much wax still in the dirt it may be kept to put in the 
next melting and the dirt will gradually be eliminated. 

Extensive dealers in wax use a little sulfuric acid to 
assist in cleaning the wax. Manufacturers of comb-founda- 
tion usually advise against this practice because beekeepers 
often use too much acid. A proportion of not more than 
one pint to forty gallons of water should be used, this water 
being sufficient for the melting of 750 pounds of wax. 

Granulation of wax. 

In rendering, wax may be formed into an emulsion due 
to the presence of gums in the honey which adheres to the 
combs and on hardening this resembles a thick paste of 
corn meal. Many beekeepers believe that this is pollen 
from the combs and throw it away. It is, however, almost 
solid wax. In melting up combs which had contained honey- 
dew on one occasion the author found the whole mass of 
wax in this condition after cooling. Such granulated wax 
(as it is usually called) should be melted slowly by dry 
heat (not in water) and with care the wax may be saved. 
It is claimed that this emulsion is less common when sul- 
furic acid is used in clearing and Dadant claims that it is 
increased by excessive heat. The important fact for the 
beekeeper is that this is not pollen and should be saved. 

Bleaching wax. 

The bleaching of wax is rarely done by the beekeeper and 
requires little mention in a book on beekeeping. It is inter- 
esting to note, however, that waxes from various regions vary 
greatly in bleaching, some of the darker waxes being easily 
bleached while some lighter waxes do not respond to this 
treatment. Presumably this is due to the kind of honey 
and pollen available to the bees when the wax was secreted. 
Wax dealers claim that wax from some of the southern 
States is the best obtainable in the United States for bleach- 
ing. Usually wax is cut into thin ribbons and exposed to 
sunlight, but chemicals are sometimes used in bleaching. 



The Production and Care of Beeswax 339 

White (bleached) wax differs physically and chemically from 
yellow wax. 

Adulteration of wax. 

Fortunately this also is a subject in which beekeepers 
take no interest, but nevertheless beeswax is frequently 
adulterated by the addition of mineral waxes, wax from other 
insects or tallow or by cruder methods, such as the addition 
of gypsum, starch or flour. The detection of these adul- 
terations (except the cruder ones) must usually be left to 
the chemist, but beekeepers rely on what is known as the 
" break test." If a cake of pure wax is cracked it presents 
a granular surface which is not seen in wax with even a 
small percentage of paraffin. The determination of the 
specific gravity is also useful to the beekeeper in confirming 
his suspicions of a lot of wax. 

Preparation of wax for market. 

Usually the beekeeper ships his cakes of wax in bags or 
barrels to the wax dealer and most commonly to the manu- 
facturer of comb-foundation. To see a great pile of these 
cakes as they come in is sufficient to convince one that bee- 
keepers are not as a rule sufficiently careful in cleaning their 
wax. One large company of beekeepers puts up wax in 
cakes just large enough to go into a shipping case such as is 
used in shipping two 5-gallon square cans of extracted- 
honey. Each cake is wrapped in paper and there is not a 
particle of dirt on the bottom of the cake. This firm re- 
ceives an equivalent of about two cents a pound more than 
beekeepers similarly located and in fact has received over 
five cents a pound more than beekeepers through whose 
territory the wax passes on its way to market. The fact 
that they produce several thousand pounds of wax a year 
makes this a considerable item and it may not be so well 
worth while for a beekeeper with only a little wax to ship 
at one time. 



340 Beekeeping 

Special production of wax. 

In the previous discussion it is assumed that beeswax 
is always a by-product of the apiary, but the manipulation 
of bees for the production of wax is a phase of beekeeping 
which might well be tried in some tropical or sub-tropical 
regions. If the honey is of low grade and the cost of trans- 
portation is excessive, this should be tried. In Hawaii the 
author advised l that by special manipulations the honey- 
dew honey be converted into wax and this has been tried. 
While the manipulation is reported not materially to have 
reduced the output of honey-dew honey it did increase the 
wax considerably. In Porto Rico and in other tropical 
countries there are good locations from which the transpor- 
tation of honey is almost impossible and the author advised 2 
that this be tested out in Porto Rico. There are records 
in bee journals of this being done with success in such lo- 
calities but details are lacking so that to the present the sub- 
ject is one chiefly of speculation. It is usually believed 
that from seven to twenty pounds of honey are consumed 
in the building of one pound of comb and in the literature 
the preference is given to the higher estimates. However, 
bees appear to build comb much more quickly than usual 
under some conditions, and this suggests that because of 
some physiological condition the building of comb is more 
economical. Careful work as to the cost of wax in terms of 
honey is greatly needed, as well as tests as to the possibility 
of producing wax where honey is worth only about three cents 
a pound at the apiary. 

Uses of beeswax. 

The only way in which the beekeeper utilizes beeswax 
to any extent in his work is in the form of comb-foundation. 
This is made of thin sheets of pure beeswax embossed with 

1 Phillips, E. F., 1909. A brief survey of Hawaiian beekeeping, U. S. 
Dept. of Agric. Bureau of Entomology, Bui. 75, Pt. V. 

2 Phillips, E. F., 1914. Porto Rican beekeeping. Bui. 15, P. R. Agric. 
Exp. Station. 



The Production and Care of Beeswax 341 

the bases of cells of the comb. It is supposed that Mehring 
in 1857 made the first comb-foundation and during the next 
twenty years some progress was made, but not until Root 
(1876) made a machine by means of which foundation is 
made between rollers was much advance made. Repeated 
and continuous efforts to improve the product have led to 
great advance in the reliability of the manufactured founda- 
tion and comb-foundation is now used by all progressive 
beekeepers. Better results are obtained if the wax is sheeted 
and then put between the rollers under considerable pressure, 
and as a result the home-made article is less dependable 
than that made in well-equipped factories. Over 500,000 
pounds of beeswax is annually made into comb-foundation 
in the United States. The Rietsche press is used in Europe 
but rarely in America. Two concrete or plaster of Paris 
molds are made so that if hot wax is poured on one and the 
other applied the wax is molded to foundation. This 
foundation is soft, breaks easily and is more wasteful of wax 
than that made on rolls. 

As was stated earlier, comb-foundation is made of pure 
wax. It is reported that in Europe it is sometimes adul- 
terated by adding paraffin or cerasin, but it is claimed that 
when this is done the foundation is not easily accepted by 
the bees and sags badly after the comb is built. It may be 
stated that the manufacturers of comb-foundation in this 
country do not practice this deception and the author has 
personal knowledge of several cases in which these manu- 
facturers have rejected shipments of adulterated wax even 
when offered at a very low price. This should give the Ameri- 
can beekeeper confidence in the marketed product. 

In addition to the use of beeswax in beekeeping it has 
many uses in the arts, sciences and industries. It is ex- 
tensively used in making candles, which are not molded as 
are tallow candles but are made by pouring, drawing or 
dipping. Beeswax candles are used chiefly in church cere- 
monies. It is also used for making furniture and leather 
polishes, sealing and grafting waxes and in making certain 



342 Beekeeping 

varnishes. It is also used in electrical work as an insulation 
and to wax threads, especially in sewing leathers. Numer- 
ous salves and cosmetics in which beeswax is an ingredient 
are recommended in books on beekeeping, but it is surely 
safer to take the advice of a physician on these matters. 

In view of the fact that American beekeepers produce 
relatively little beeswax in proportion to the extent of the 
beekeeping industry, it is necessary to import a considerable 
amount from other countries to supply the heavy demands. 
This amounts to about 700,000 pounds annually. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE CARE OF BEES IN WINTER 

For honeybees to survive the winter season in cold cli- 
mates it is necessary that they be able to generate consider- 
able heat. They cannot hibernate as do solitary insects 
and they cannot migrate to warmer climates. The only 
method open to them is, therefore, the storage of food and 
the production and conservation of heat when the outer 
temperature falls below the critical temperature, 57° F. 
The behavior of the cluster during the winter season has 
been discussed in an earlier chapter (p. 88). 

Losses in winter. 

That the winter problem warrants considerable investi- 
gation and study is shown by the fact that American bee- 
keepers annually experience an average loss of probably 
ten per cent of their colonies. The value of these amounts 
to several million dollars and this loss and the weakening 
of colonies serve further to discourage the beekeeper and to 
reduce his income the following year. In certain years 
the losses have been excessive. The season of 1884-85 
stands out in the history of American beekeeping as one of 
terrible devastation. During the winter of 1903-04 prob- 
ably seventy per cent of the bees in New England died while 
in 1909-10 the loss was probably fifty per cent in the north- 
eastern United States. The winter of 1911-12 was also 
one of heavy mortality, the actual death of colonies costing 
the beekeepers in the eastern United States millions of dol- 
lars. The problem is therefore one of vital interest to the 
beekeeper and is one of the most important in the develop- 
ment of the industry. 

343 



344 Beekeeping 

Object of winter protection. 

In providing extra protection to the colonies outdoors 
or in placing them in special cellars, the object of the bee- 
keeper is to reduce the expenditure of energy on the part 
of the bees. As was shown earlier (p. 128), a worker bee 
may for all practical considerations be considered as capable 
of only a certain amount of work and when this work is 
performed the bee dies. Consequently if too much energy 
is expended during the winter the entire colony may die, 
or if some bees still live they are unable to do the work re- 
quired of them in the spring. To conserve the energy to 
the fullest extent there are numerous external factors which 
must be considered by the beekeeper in planning for the 
winter. 

Requirements for successful wintering. 

Before discussing the methods advocated for the care of 
bees in winter, it will be well to name the factors which are 
essential to the activities of bees during this season. First 
of all, to winter well, a colony must be large enough to gen- 
erate heat and to conserve it economically. It should 
also contain a great number of young bees, full of vitality 
and capable of prolonged heat production should this be- 
come necessary. To accomplish these requirements breed- 
ing should be prolonged in the fall. The colony should 
also have a good queen capable of keeping up egg-laying 
rather late and then able to permit the colony to build up 
rapidly to full strength the following spring. 

Winter stores. 

The colony should be provided with an abundance of 
food of good quality. No food better than good honey has 
ever been found for bees and the safest plan is to leave enough 
in the hives to supply the bees without feeding. Not all 
honeys are equally good and in general it is safe to consider 
the lighter honeys preferable. The fall honeys are not 
considered as good as those obtained earlier. There are 



The Care of Bees in Winter 345 

exceptions to these statements, however, since buckwheat 
honey is satisfactory. Most honeys from tree sources are 
not so good as those from smaller plants because of the higher 
gum content. Honey-dew honey should not be left in the 
hives for winter stores, but if some is present the danger may 
be reduced by feeding ten pounds or more of sugar syrup 
after brood-rearing ceases. In case the colony is found to 
be short of stores a syrup made of granulated sugar may be 
fed. If the feeding is done early, one part of sugar to one 
part of water (by measure) is a proper proportion, but for 
later feeding one part of water to two and one-half parts of 
sugar is preferable. To the latter syrup, add one teaspoonful 
of tartaric acid to fifteen or twenty pounds of sugar while 
it is being heated to change the cane sugar to invert sugar. 
Heating should be continued until every crystal is dissolved. 
Late feeding should be done rapidly. The use of candy 
for colonies which exhaust their stores in winter should be 
considered as an emergency treatment and nothing but 
granulated sugar should be used in making the candy. Be- 
fore cold weather arrives each colony to be wintered out of 
doors should have in the combs thirty pounds of honey and 
preferably more. 

Cause and effects of humidity in the hive. 

In winter, especially in a cold or poorly ventilated cellar, 
the atmosphere in the hive may become so laden with 
water vapor that water will condense on the cover, combs 
and sides of the hive, drop to the bottom board and even 
run out the entrance. The source of this moisture is, of 
course, the food of the bees. Honey- is a carbohydrate, and 
when consumed ultimately becomes carbon dioxid and water, 
one gallon of honey producing approximately one gallon 
of water. Unless the moisture is carried off in the form of 
vapor by convection currents in the atmosphere, it will 
be condensed in the hive, for bees do not ventilate the hive 
by fanning when clustered. 

The condensation of water may be prevented by raising 



346 Beekeeping 

the temperature, by abundant ventilation or by artificial 
drying, as by the use of unslaked lime. These methods 
may be applied in the bee cellar. It should be recalled that 
an increase in the temperature of the atmosphere increases 
the capacity of the atmosphere for water vapor and thereby 
decreases the relative humidity. 1 

Bees need water in winter but they get enough in their 
food provided the temperature does not get so high that 
the relative humidity of the outer air is too low. The 
optimum relative humidity has not been determined and, 
in fact, virtually no observations have been made on the 
relative humidity of the atmosphere of the hive or bee cellar. 
Probably the great diversity of opinion as to the best tempera- 
ture for the bee cellar is due to the unrecorded differences 
in the relative humidity of the various cellars observed. 

Effects of ventilation. 

Ventilation of the hive and of the bee cellar depends upon 
the currents of air caused by the differences in temperature 
in two points, since bees do not mechanically ventilate 
the hive in winter. The movements of air serve not only 
to remove carbon dioxid and bring in oxygen but, probably 
more important, they carry out the surplus water vapor. 
Abundant ventilation is beneficial and becomes harmful 
only if the temperature is too greatly reduced thereby. It 
has been determined that bees survive in an atmosphere 
which contains an unusually high percentage of carbon dioxid 
but it is not wise to err on that side. 

Source of heat and effects of changes of temperature. 

It has been determined by Demuth and the author 2 that 
bees generate heat in winter by muscular activity and that 

1 The beekeeper interested in cellar wintering will do well to consult 
Marvin, 1912, Psychrometric tables, Weather Bureau Publication 235 
and other works dealing with the relation of relative humidity to tempera- 
ture. 

2 Phillips and Demuth, 1914. The temperature of the honey bee cluster 
in winter. U. S. Dept. of Agric, Bulletin 93. 



The Care of Bees in Winter 347 

undisturbed broodless bees generate virtually no heat 
between 57° and 69° F. (Fig. 141). When the temperature 
of the air about the bees falls below 57° the bees form a 
cluster and raise the temperature, often almost to blood 
heat. It follows that when the temperature of the bees 
is above 57° and below 69° F. they do less work than at 
other temperatures and their energies are thereby conserved. 
However, to raise the outer temperature to 57° F. often so 
reduces the relative humidity of the surrounding air as to 
create excitement in the cluster and thereby to destroy the 
desirable condition. Other factors not yet worked out 
probably have a bearing on this problem. The majority 
of beekeepers consider 40° to 45° F. as the best cellar tem- 
perature, but it is clear that the temperature can usually 
be raised to at least 50° F. with beneficial results. Humidity 
and ventilation are so intimately connected with tempera- 
ture that one cannot be investigated separate from the 
others. 

Disturbance. 

Any factor which induces undue activity in the winter 
must be considered as a disturbing factor. For example, 
low temperature, improper humidity, poor food or insuffi- 
cient ventilation create an undue excitement which should 
be avoided. Disturbance is usually considered, however, as 
applying to manipulation of the colony or to jarring while 
the colony is clustered. Any such circumstance causes the 
colony to raise the temperature, which may not again become 
normal for many hours. All manipulation or handling is 
to be avoided, therefore, especially in cold weather or in 
the cellar. Colonies sometimes begin brood-rearing in 
winter, usually induced by some improper outside condi- 
tion. The care of the brood then causes a high temperature 
and corresponding excessive activity which decimates the 
colony. Brood-rearing should so far as possible be avoided 
until the bees can fly freely. 

In this connection it will be recalled that breeding often 



348 



Beekeeping 





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The Care of Bees in Winter 349 

begins in colonies wintered out of doors during the coldest 
weather. The previously mentioned results on colony tem- 
peratures lend support to the theory that excessive outside 
cold causes the raising of the temperature of the cluster to 
the point where egg-laying is possible and that the beginning 
of breeding is a response to the stimulus of external cold. 
Similarly, colonies wintered in the cellar may have their 
temperature raised by reason of an undue accumulation of 
feces and breeding may be begun. If these theories are 
tenable, winter breeding is to be considered as indicative of 
poor wintering and there is abundant evidence that the best 
results are obtained where no breeding takes place until the 
bees fly freely. 



METHODS OF WINTERING BEES 

There are two main plans of wintering bees and it is often 
difficult for the beekeeper to decide which he should adopt. 
They may be left on their summer stands (Fig. 142) where 
they are free to fly on warm days or they may be placed in a 
cellar or special repository as a protection against extremes 
of temperature, in which event they normally have no oppor- 
tunity to fly and to void their feces until placed again in 
their summer locations. C. C. Miller, in an excellent article 1 
on cellar wintering, concludes that in general up to 40° 
latitude it is better to winter outside, and north of that it is 
questionable. However, he also points out the fact that 
latitude or even isothermal lines cannot alone determine 
this. Wind velocity and constancy and the facilities of the 
beekeeper are important considerations. There seems to 
be a growing sentiment among the beekeepers to prefer 
to winter outdoors, but this should probably be considered 
chiefly as indicating a lack of information concerning the 
methods of getting optimum conditions in the cellar. 

1 Miller, C. C, 1913. Some things about cellar-wintering. American 
Bee Journal, LIII, pp. 271-273, 310-312. 



350 



Beekeeping 



Outdoor wintering. 

In warm situations, bees may be left outside all winter 
with no added protection, for they are often able to with- 
stand great hardship and may even survive zero weather 
in a single-walled hive. However, if the energy of the colony 
is to be properly conserved, they should not be called upon 
to endure this. Beekeepers are coming to the view that 
abundant packing is desirable and the tendency seems to be 




Fig. 142. — An apiary in winter. 



to use more than was formerly thought necessary. Pack- 
ing serves to prevent the loss of heat generated by the bees 
and thereby materially lessens the muscular activity neces- 
sary. Just as it is practically impossible to leave too much 
honey in a hive for winter, so it has never been observed that 
a colony is too thoroughly packed. 

A commendable plan, which has been in use for many 
years, is to place four colonies close together in a box, two 
facing east and two facing west, leaving room for four to 
six inches of planer shavings or dry leaves on all sides and 
perhaps a foot on top. Sawdust is less desirable than fine 



The Care of Bees in Winter 351 

shavings because it holds water and thereby becomes a 
poorer non-conductor. Tunnels through the packing pro- 
vide entrances to the hives and the roof should be water 
tight to prevent the packing from becoming wet from rain 
or snow. This method of packing is used with excellent 
results in many northern apiaries in the United States and 
Canada. Packing may also be applied to each colony (Fig. 
142) or to a row of hives in a variety of ways to suit the 
convenience of the beekeeper. 

To secure the most favorable conditions, each strong col- 
ony may be given two hive-bodies well supplied with stores 
and then if four colonies are packed together in a large box 
as described above we have as nearly ideal conditions as 
may be obtained in the open. The beekeeper may rest 
assured that the labor involved in thoroughly packing his 
colonies and in furnishing abundant stores will be repaid 
many fold. 

Colonies wintered outdoors should be provided with pack- 
ing early. While the temperatures of autumn nights are 
not so low as to endanger the bees, still the heat which must 
be generated in an unpacked hive is an unnecessary drain 
on the vitality and stores of the colony and for the average 
northern apiary it is desirable that the colonies be packed 
early in October. Similarly, the packing should not be 
removed too early. When frequent examinations of the 
colony become necessary, the temporary packing around the 
hives becomes bothersome, but it is best to leave it on so 
long as it does not interfere with the work of the apiary. 
Where heavy outside packing is needed, the packing may 
usually be kept on until some time in May. 

To reduce convection currents a tall hive is to be preferred 
in winter. For summer manipulations the majority of 
American beekeepers prefer a hive not deeper than the 
Langstroth, which is rather shallow for best results in winter. 
This may be overcome by giving each strong colony two 
hive-bodies, the top one being well filled with stores. If 
such a hive is well packed it is highly satisfactory. 



352 Beekeeping 

Hives of various types are made in which insulation is 
provided permanently, and were it not for the difficulty of 
moving such hives they would probably be more in favor 
among commercial beekeepers. Top packing is the most 
beneficial and may profitably be retained throughout the 
summer if practical. 

Insulation for the conservation of heat is of the greatest 
importance, but even a well insulated hive or group of hives 
may not offer adequate protection unless sheltered from 
strong winds. The enormous loss of heat due to wind is 
usually not appreciated. A high fence or a heavy evergreen 
hedge is the means of a great saving of bee vitality. 

The weakest place in the protection of the colony is the 
entrance. It is not safe to contract the entrance too much 
for it may then become entirely closed by dead bees. Neither 
is it safe to close the entrance entirely and provide indirect 
ventilation for the bees become restless when confined. 
The entrance should be closed as much as possible and yet 
provide room for dead bees. An entrance | by 8 inches 
is perhaps the largest ever needed in wintering outside 
and this is often too large, especially for relatively weak 
colonies. 

The wrapping of hives in black tar paper and leaving 
unprotected the fronts of the hives which face south are 
often advocated on the theory that the heat of the sun will 
more rapidly warm up the hive on bright days. Since the 
sun shines on the hive only a small fraction of the time in 
the average apiary in the winter season, the benefits of heat 
from the sun should not be overestimated. Any arrange- 
ment for absorbing heat from without is equally effective 
in dissipating heat from within and consequently a heavy 
packing on all sides is advisable. If possible it is best to 
have the packing cases painted white to reduce loss of 
heat. 

To summarize : for outside wintering, leave abundant 
stores, pack early and heavily, protect from wind and un- 
pack late. 



The Care of Bees in Winter 



353 



Cellar wintering. 

It is much more difficult to give definite advice to the 
beekeeper who wishes to winter his colonies in a cellar, 
although there is theoretically every reason to consider 
this the better method. If good food is given the colony 
(and this is more important in the cellar than outdoors in 
most climates) and if the cellar temperature and ventila- 
tion are controlled properly, excellent results may be ob- 
tained and a considerable saving made in the stores consumed, 
although the saving of stores is a minor consideration. The 
optimum cellar temperature, as stated above, is usually 
believed to be between 40° and 45° F. It has been shown 
that at such a cellar temperature the production of heat 
is constantly necessary during the winter and this may be 
reduced by raising the cellar temperature. Great care must, 
however, be exercised that the bees do not become excited 
and crawl out of the hives. In general a cellar temperature 
of 50° F. or higher 
results in a saving 
of the vitality of 
the bees. Suffi- 
cient ventilation 
should be pro- 
vided to prevent 
condensation of 
water, which will, 
however, be rare 
at the higher cel- 
lar temperature. 
Light should be 
excluded and the 
colonies should be 
absolutely undisturbed from the time they are put in place 
until they are removed. Most beekeepers use the cellars 
under their residences, but special cellars are often constructed 
under the honey-house or in the apiary (Fig. 143). Since low 
temperatures are to be avoided it is usually preferable to use a 
2a 




Fig. 143. — Roof of a bee cellar away from a house. 



354 



Beekeeping 



cellar under the residence, especially if the house is heated by 
a furnace. If separate cellars are built they should be ex- 
ceptionally well insulated on all sides, top and bottom, so that 
the heat generated by the bees will be sufficient to raise the 
temperature of the cellar to at least 50° F. Honey is expen- 
sive fuel and bees are costly furnaces, consequently artificial 




Fig. 144. — Arrangement of hives in a cellar. 



heat combined with insulation will be found to result in 
better wintering in most cases. Few of the special cellars 
built away from the house are satisfactory and furthermore 
if the bees are not near by there is danger that the beekeeper 
will not give them the attention which they often need during 
the confinement. 

In the construction of the cellar, care should be exercised 
to provide good drainage and ventilation should be adequate 



The Care of Bees in Winter 355 

to remove the moisture so that condensed moisture will 
never be observed on the bottom boards. If moisture con- 
denses on the covers only it does no harm. Since adequate 
ventilation without too great a reduction in temperature is 
difficult without artificial heat, this is an additional argu- 
ment in favor of using the cellar under the residence for the 
bees. 

Colonies should not be put into the cellar until all brood 
has emerged and until all the young bees have had a chance 
to fly to void their feces. There is a growing tendency at 
present to put the colonies in early and this is to be com- 
mended. After a good flight and after the bees are clustered, 
the hives should be carried in with the least possible dis- 
turbance. They may be piled one above the other as high 
as convenient for lifting (Fig. 144) and the tiers should be 
separated by alleys wide enough for convenient passage. 

During the winter, dead bees should be removed from the 
floor as well as from the bottom boards (with the minimum 
disturbance) and a careful watch should be kept that the 
bees do not become excited by too low or too high a tempera- 
ture. A reliable thermometer is practically necessary in 
good cellar wintering and the use of a sling psychrometer 
(wet and dry bulb thermometer) to determine the relative 
humidity of the air in the cellar is recommended. If the 
bees remain in proper condition they may profitably be left 
in the cellar until rather favorable weather arrives in the 
spring. If dysentery develops they may require earlier 
removal. 

It is obviously impossible to give definite dates for putting 
bees in the cellar or for taking them out. This the beekeeper 
must determine according to the climatic conditions and, 
of course, the dates may vary from year to year. Perhaps 
the best advice is to put bees in the cellar immediately after 
the last good flight in November. Naturally one cannot be 
sure that bees will get a flight late in the month. It is also 
not desirable to leave the bees outside waiting for a flight 
which may not come, for feces accumulate rapidly in such 



356 Beekeeping 

cool weather, and if bees go into the cellar after being with- 
out a flight for a couple of weeks they are poorly prepared 
for the winter confinement. With improved cellar condi- 
tions and with the proper food, bees may be put in earlier 
without detriment. 

It is often equally difficult to decide when bees should 
be put back on their summer stands. They should not 
be taken out until fresh pollen and nectar are available, 
unless they show pronounced signs of dysentery, as indicated 
by spotting of the hive or by undue excitement. If the 
cellar temperature and humidity are right, they may prof- 
itably be left in until danger of severe cold is practically past. 

After colonies are removed from the cellar, they may 
profitably be given protection to aid in the conservation 
of heat. The elaborate packing used on colonies wintered 
outdoors is not practical for the spring, but the more colonies 
are protected from the wind and the more insulation that is 
given to conserve heat, the better the bees are able to build 
up rapidly to full strength. 

Effects 0} confinement. 

Bees normally do not eject their feces in the hive, and if 
confined there for a time, either outdoors or in the bee cellar, 
feces may so accumulate that the bees are unable to hold 
them. The hive and combs are then spotted and this con- 
dition the beekeeper knows as dysentery. The feces are 
composed of the parts of the food which cannot be digested 
and assimilated and of the excreted products. Therefore, 
a food which contains an unusual amount of indigestible 
material is ill suited for food during a period of confinement. 
Honey-dew honey is specially bad, since it contains a rela- 
tively large percentage of gums, and sugar syrup is ideal in 
so far as the prevention of dysentery is concerned. 

It has been shown in the paper previously mentioned that 
the accumulation of feces causes the bees to become more 
active, and this in turn causes an increase in the tempera- 
ture of the cluster (Fig. 145). The temperature may finally 



The Care of Bees in Winter 



357 



reach a point where brood-rearing may begin, and this with 
the increased activity causes excessive feeding and still 
greater accumulation of feces. It is therefore quite plain 
that a good food free from gums is of primary importance 





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Fig. 145. — Diagram showing the effects of an accumulation of feces. The 
heavy line represents the temperature of the cellar, the lighter ones 
those inside the clusters. The colony which died in December was on 
honey-dew stores and the one which lived through the winter was on 
honey stores. Brood-rearing occurred in the honey-dew colony during 
November and it also suffered from dysentery. 

in successful wintering. If the bees are free to fly at fre- 
quent intervals the inferior food will do less harm and bees 
may even winter on honey-dew honey if there are no long 
periods of confinement. It is, however, doubtful whether 
they are as vigorous later on if the food is inferior. 



358 Beekeeping 

Years ago it was asserted 1 that the presence of pollen in the 
hive where the bees could eat it is responsible for dysentery, 
but later work and the experience of beekeepers do not war- 
rant this conclusion. A suggestion made by Holterman is 
worthy of consideration in this connection. He advocates 
giving each colony ten pounds of sugar in the form of syrup 
late in the fall to be sure they have enough food. This 
serves another purpose, perhaps not fully appreciated. The 
syrup will be stored next to the cluster, the bees will then 
use it first and, since it contains no gums, the accumulation 
of feces cannot occur until the syrup is exhausted. 

Spring dwindling. 

If the colony goes into winter quarters with few young 
bees or if by excessive activity during the winter because 
of poor care they age rapidly, the adult bees are often unable 
to do the work required of them when brood-rearing begins. 
Then they may die more rapidly than they are replaced by 
the emerging bees. To this condition the name spring 
dwindling is applied. Obviously the proper course is to 
prevent the condition. The prolonging of brood-rearing in 
the fall and especially the giving of proper care in winter, in- 
cluding good food and protection from cold, will prevent this 
condition. If it should occur, it may be reduced somewhat 
by abundant protection from cold and wind in the spring. 

A final word of qualification should be inserted here at 
the close of the discussion of the care of bees in winter. 
An effort has been made to give the best advice possible in 
the light of our present limited knowledge of this subject. 
As the investigations proceed, some of the statements here 
made may need qualification, and indeed with the facts at 
hand some of them could be limited more than they now are. 

1 Heddon, Jas., 1885. Success in bee culture. Dowagiac, Mich. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE SOURCES OF NECTAR AND POLLEN 

To the beekeeper who properly studies his locality, one 
of the most important as well as often one of the most diffi- 
cult tasks is to determine the sources from which his bees 
gather nectar and pollen. The books and journals devoted 
to beekeeping give considerable information concerning 
honey-plants, but to learn which ones are to be considered 
as of primary importance and to identify properly those on 
which bees are seen working is sometimes difficult. In 
localities where only one or two plants yield surplus, this 
problem is relatively easy. For example, in part of the 
irrigated regions of the West, alfalfa and sweet clover are 
almost the only plants which the beekeeper need consider, 
while in the northern part of the United States there are 
localities where white clover is virtually the only surplus- 
yielding species which need influence the apiary manage- 
ment. 

Reason for knowledge of nectar sources. 

Since the beekeeper does not cultivate anything especially 
for his bees, it may not be evident why he should study the 
honey-plants. While it is true to a large extent that the 
beekeeper must take whatever the plants in the region furnish, 
he must, to be successful, know when the dependable plants 
will bloom so that he may have his colonies strong and ready 
to gather the harvest. In the establishment of out-apiaries 
he should also study the country to decide on the best loca- 
tions, those nearest to the most valuable and abundant 
sources. 

359 



360 Beekeeping 

Difficulties of identification. 

At times this work calls for considerable knowledge of 
botany, which most beekeepers cannot be expected to possess. 
Because of errors in identification and failure to keep in 
touch with recent advances in the science of botany, the 
scientific names of the honey-plants in the books and journals 
on beekeeping often do not agree with those of the leading 
botanical works. 

Study of neighboring locations. 

It frequently happens that a beekeeper maintains his 
apiary for years in one locality, sometimes experiencing a 
total failure of his crop, when within a few miles of him 
there are nectar resources on which he might draw, but of 
which he is in ignorance. Many beekeepers have come to 
see this only after they have established out-apiaries. A 
beekeeper who is depending on his bees for a considerable 
amount of his income should make a study of the regions 
about him, perhaps for a distance of several miles, and when 
he finds a locality which looks promising, but concerning 
which he can get no definite information, it will pay to place 
one or two colonies there and to inspect them at intervals 
during the season. In this way, it is possible at times to 
find locations favorable for migratory beekeeping. Any 
swamps within moving distance should be investigated, 
as these regions are more dependable than drier locations. 
In view of the fact that many beekeepers by staying at 
home are losing nectar that is abundant only a few miles 
away, it is evident that scouting should be more generally 
practiced. The increasing use of automobile trucks by 
beekeepers will probably lead to more migratory beekeeping 
than has existed in the past. 

Function of nectar. 

The nectar which is secreted in the flowers of numerous 
species of plants is not a mere by-product of plant activity 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 361 

but serves a definite function in the plant's life-cycle. There 
are numerous adaptations of plant structure and physiology 
which serve to bring about cross-fertilization, by which the 
ovule of one flower is fertilized by pollen from another 
flower, often from another plant of the same species. Pollen 
of certain species is carried from flower to flower by the 
wind but one of the most common methods is through the 
agency of insects. The insects which perform this mission 
are usually attracted by the nectar which the flowers secrete 
and, in going from flower to flower to get this nectar for food, 
they act as unconscious agents of cross-fertilization by carry- 
ing pollen from the stamen of one flower to the pistil of 
another. The nectar is therefore the attractive object in 
this process. 

Many insects do this work ; some flowers are visited 
most frequently by flies, others by small wild bees, but a 
honeybee not only goes for nectar for its own food but also 
carries it to the hive for food for the brood and for the adults 
in adverse seasons. It therefore makes many visits. The 
honeybee is unique in many ways, not the least wonderful 
of which is its hoarding instinct. That the honeybees gather 
at times more than they need makes it profitable for the 
beekeeper to care for them so that he may take this surplus. 

In the adaptations of Nature, nectar is first of all to 
attract insects, then when honeybees gather it, they do so 
to feed themselves and their brood. The surplus honey 
is therefore simply a by-product, an over-production due 
to the prodigality of Nature, by which the beekeeper profits. 
Unless gathered by the bees and appropriated in part by 
the beekeeper, much of this nectar would simply dry up, 
consequently honey-production is the conservation of a 
natural resource, which if not taken immediately is lost. 

Variations in nectar. 

Nectar varies with each individual species of plant. 
Since plants vary in the color of flowers, shape of leaves 
and in innumerable other characters, it should not be a mat- 



362 Beekeeping 

ter of surprise that they also show marked differences in 
color, water content and flavor of nectar. Not only do 
flowers of different species of plants secrete nectar of various 
types but nectar of any one species may differ according to 
soil, climatic conditions and other environmental factors 
influencing the growth of the plant, just as may the leaves 
and other parts of the plants. For example, in Colorado 
alfalfa honey is a beautiful white product but farther south 
it is more amber in color. This may sometimes be due to 
an admixture of other nectars. 

Variation in secretion. 

Nectar-secretion may, in a sense, be taken as an indica- 
tion as to the most favorable conditions for growth of any 
species and most species which furnish nectar are highly 
susceptible in this respect to outside influences. Within the 
limits of the geographical distribution of a nectar-secreting 
species there may be a more restricted area in which the 
flowers secrete nectar. The species may be rather prevalent 
outside its usual nectar-secreting boundaries, but there is 
probably some factor in the environment not best suited 
to the plant if it fails to produce nectar. For example, 
alfalfa is now grown in all sections of the United States 
but the Mississippi River may be taken roughly as the eastern 
boundary of its secreting area. White clover produces in 
the northern part of the United States a superb honey, 
often in exceedingly heavy honey-flows, but farther south 
it becomes a honey-plant of secondary importance. 

Effects of climatic conditions on secretion. 

Any species of nectar-secreting plant is often rendered 
non-productive by unfavorable weather conditions. The 
smaller plants usually cease nectar-secretion at once in dry 
weather, while the tree sources are less quickly affected. 
Basswood seems to be an exception, however. Hot, sultry 
weather with rains at night during the blooming period of 
white clover usually brings a heavy honey-flow. The sages 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 363 

of southern California secrete nectar in abundance only 
if there is sufficient rainfall while the plants are growing, 
preparatory to flowering. Because of this fact, the bee- 
keepers of that region carefully watch the records of rain- 
fall during the winter to judge as to their prospects for a 
heavy honey-flow in the summer. The physiology of nec- 
tar-secretion is so little understood, by beekeepers at any 
rate, that we do not know the relative importance of tem- 
perature, humidity, barometric pressure and other environ- 
mental factors in bringing about abundant secretion. If 
these influences were more carefully studied, the beekeeper 
could better forecast his crop and plan his work day by day 
during the season. As it is, he relies on his unbounded 
hope of success to carry him through. 

Advantages of swamp sources. 

Since plants which grow in swamps are less subject to 
changes in available moisture and usually get an abundance, 
the swamp honey-plants are usually more dependable than 
those growing in dry soils. In swamp lands, too, the honey- 
plants are less liable to destruction through agricultural 
operations and conditions are more likely to remain the same 
year after year. These facts should be more generally 
recognized by beekeepers seeking new locations for the es- 
tablishment of apiaries. The tree sources are usually more 
dependable than smaller plants. 

Cultivation of plants for nectar. 

It was stated earlier in this chapter that the beekeeper 
does not cultivate anything especially for his bees. This 
has been tried several times without profit. However, 
plants which are nectar-producers and which also have a 
value in some other respect may often be cultivated with 
profit to the beekeeper. Alsike clover is an excellent honey- 
plant and many beekeepers have materially improved their 
ranges, either by planting this clover as a forage plant or 
by encouraging neighboring farmers to do so. Buckwheat, 



364 Beekeeping 

alfalfa and cotton may also be mentioned among the culti- 
vated plants of value to the beekeeper. In seeking to im- 
prove a range by changing the flora, it is often profitable to 
scatter seed of some plant which will occupy waste land. 
Although the appreciation of the value of sweet clover as a 
forage plant and soil renovator is increasing among farmers, 
it is still valuable to the beekeeper chiefly as occupying 
waste land, crowding out less valuable plants. The scatter- 
ing of sweet clover seed along embankments and over waste 
land has proved so profitable to beekeepers that the seed is 
now offered for sale annually in the bee journals. 

Value of the minor sources. 

Those plants which, because of scarcity or limited secre- 
tion of nectar, fail to give the beekeeper a surplus are, never- 
theless, of marked value and are worthy of more consider- 
ation than they usually receive. The amount of honey 
consumed by an average colony of bees in a year has been 
variously estimated as from 200 to 600 pounds. 1 This will, 
of course, vary according to the locality, strength of colony 
and other factors. Accepting even the lowest figure, it 
is evident that a moderate sized apiary obtains tons of sugar 
from the flowers in the surrounding territory. While nectar 
comes in abundantly enough at times to produce a surplus, 
the beekeeper does not leave in the hives at the close of a 
surplus honey-flow enough to feed the bees until another 
major honey-flow, except possibly at the close of the season. 
The bees are almost constantly gathering nectar from the 
minor sources during the summer and the aggregate gathered 
from these plants is enormous. If, for example, nectar were 
obtained in the North from white clover only, at the close 
of the flow the beekeeper would be compelled to leave about 



1 A recent estimate is one made by Hommell (1913, [Consumption of a 
hive of bees during the year] La Vie agricole et rurale, II, No. 22, pp. 
653-655) in which it is concluded that an average of 480 pounds is needed, 
divided as follows: maintenance of bees, 400 lbs., feeding of brood, 70 
lbs., wax production, 10 lbs. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 365 

200 pounds for the bees, and there is rarely enough honey 
from white clover to permit this. This indicates that the 
beekeeper is debtor to the minor sources for much more 
than he is accustomed to believe. 

Gathering of pollen. 

The amount of pollen consumed by a colony annually is 
also considerable. Estimates of the averages in this phase 
of bee feeding are not available, but there is, nevertheless, 
some basis for judging the consumption. If during the 
active season a colony becomes queenless and has no brood 
to feed, the stores of pollen increase rapidly and several 
combs are often filled in a short time. It can scarcely be 
claimed that queenless bees gather more pollen than normal 
ones and, in fact, it is sometimes stated that the gathering 
is then reduced, so that it is safe to conclude that had brood 
been present these extra stores of pollen would have been 
consumed almost as fast as gathered. It must be true, 
therefore, that a colony uses many frames of pollen in a 
season, so that pollen sources are important to the beekeeper. 
In gathering pollen a bee is less uniformly beneficial to 
plants than when gathering nectar. They may cross-polli- 
nate the flowers when so engaged but they are, at the same 
time, appropriating a part of the pollen on which fertiliza- 
tion depends. In some species of plants, an abundance of 
pollen seems to serve as an attractive agent, just as does 
nectar in those species provided with nectaries. 

Value of bees in cross-pollination. 

In discussing the plants from which bees gather nectar, 
further mention should be made of the beneficial results 
which arise from the visits of bees to the flowers of certain 
fruits. As was explained earlier in this chapter, nectar is 
serviceable to the plant in acting as an attraction to insect 
visitors, which act as agents in cross-pollination. Because, 
of the mutual adaptations of the insects and plants, they 
often become mutually indispensable. Some varieties of 



366 Beekeeping 

fruit trees are incapable of self-fertilization, in other cases 
fertilization is more abundant with cross-pollination and 
in no case is cross-pollination detrimental. It is therefore 
evident that successful fruit-growing is dependent on insect 
visitation. Of all the insects which serve the fruit-grower, 
there is none more efficient than the honeybee. Further- 
more, in one important respect the honeybee becomes the 
most dependable of all. At the season when the fruit trees 
blossom, insects of the wild species may be scarce, having 
been decimated by severe winter conditions, and we have 
no way of increasing their number. While honeybees also 
suffer, sometimes severely, from winter conditions, it is 
relatively easy not only to build up the colonies in the early 
spring but to bring in additional colonies as agents of fertili- 
zation. It therefore is a simple matter for the fruit-grower 
to provide insects to fertilize his blossoms, if the weather 
is suitable for flights during the blooming period. Progres- 
sive fruit-growers in all parts of the country are coming more 
and more to realize this and many of them now keep bees 
solely for the benefits to the fruit crops. 

Since it unfortunately sometimes happens that ignorant 
or incorrectly informed fruit-growers do considerable injury 
to colonies of bees in their neighborhood by spraying their 
trees with poisonous chemicals while in full bloom, it may 
be well to examine the facts to determine who receives the 
greatest benefits from the presence of bees in the average 
farming community. If one examines a fruit tree in full 
bloom, many species of insects will be found at work on the 
blossoms, gathering or eating nectar and pollen. These 
numerous species vary greatly in their efficiency in bring- 
ing about cross-pollination, and no species is better fitted 
by structure or behavior for this work than the honeybee. 
Furthermore, if colonies of bees are to be found near by. as 
there generally are. there are usually as many honeybees on 
the trees as there are insects of all other species combined. 
Insects of many of the visiting species stay only long enough 
to get sufficient to eat to satisfy their own immediate needs. 






The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 367 

but the honeybees hurry back and forth from the hive, mak- 
ing repeated visits and cross-fertilizing innumerable blossoms, 
in their efforts to increase the . colony stores. The honey 
obtained from fruit blossoms is usually small in quantity 
and serves only to stimulate brood-rearing, but in getting 
it the bees benefit the fruit-grower to an extent which can 
scarcely be over-estimated. One peculiarity of behavior 
is worthy of special mention in this connection. Honey- 
bees rarely go from one species of flower (p. 119) to another 
(unless the flowers are virtually identical) while on one trip 
from the hive. There is also evidence worthy of belief 
that an individual honeybee confines its visits to one species 
of plant, sometimes for several days. For example, a bee 
will not be seen flying from an apple blossom to a dandelion 
flower growing beneath the tree and then perhaps back to 
an apple blossom. Consequently, on visiting an apple 
blossom it does not present dandelion pollen or, in fact, any 
pollen other than that from the apple and, by virtue of this 
constancy, the benefits of the visits of honeybees are increased 
many fold. 

In view of these facts, it is not difficult to believe that in 
many orchards over half of the fruit set is to be attributed 
to the visits of the honeybees. Were this estimate reduced 
to ten per cent, which even an avowed enemy of the bee 
would consider too low, it appears that the fruit-growers 
receive more actual financial benefit from the presence of 
bees in the average farming community than do the beekeep- 
ers who own them. It therefore appears quite obvious 
that it is to the interest of fruit-growers to encourage bee- 
keeping in every way in their immediate localities. 

Damaging effects of incorrect spraying. 

Since the spraying of fruit trees while in bloom is highly 
injurious, not only to honeybees but to all of the insect 
visitors, it is evident that such spraying is to that extent 
detrimental to the interests of the fruit-grower himself. 
Since spraying in full bloom is not necessary to control the 



368 Beekeeping 

codling moth and is not advised by entomologists and since 
it is injurious to bees, several States, at the instigation of 
the beekeepers, have enacted laws prohibiting such spraying. 
However, it is difficult to enforce such a law and, through 
ignorance, carelessness or neglect, serious damage is, done to 
beekeepers at times. It may also be added that spraying 
in full bloom not only is unnecessary and detrimental to 
bees but it directly injures the fruit blossoms. 1 It is there- 
fore evident that in the light of our present knowledge, 
spraying fruit trees while in full bloom is unwarranted and 
unwise. 

e 

Bees do not puncture ripe fruit. 

In discussing the relationship existing between beekeeping 
and fruit-growing, there still remains one source of misunder- 
standing between men engaged in these branches of agri- 
culture which should be mentioned. Fruit-growers often 
make the statement that honeybees puncture ripe fruit to 
suck the juices, thereby causing considerable financial loss, 
as well as hindering the picking of the fruit. This claim has 
been the cause of ill-feeling in certain localities. It has, 
however, been abundantly demonstrated that honeybees do 
not puncture the skin of any fruit. To show this, if a colony 
of bees is confined in a hive without honey and is given spec- 
imens of sound fruit, the bees will die of starvation without 
puncturing a single fruit. On the other hand, if an apple, 
plum or grape is punctured, even slightly, and given to bees 
in this way they will suck all the juice. If it is maintained 
that confined bees may act differently from those free to fly, 
it may be replied that no one has ever seen honeybees punc- 
ture fruit either by stinging or biting. Furthermore, if 
there is any nectar available, honeybees will always take 
that in preference to the juice of injured fruits. If then a 
fruit-grower sees honeybees sucking his fruit, he may be sure 

1 Cf. Beach, S. A., and Bailey, L. H., 1900. Bui. 196, N. Y. Agric. Exp. 
Sta., Geneva. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 369 

that the fruit was first damaged by some bird, by some other 
insect (e.g. hornet), by a bruise or by some form of decay 
and he may further be certain that the bees are sucking the 
juices of only damaged, unmarketable fruit. It may also 
be added that fruit juices are most undesirable stores for 
bees and, if used exclusively in winter, the colony will prob- 
ably die. The beekeeper is therefore often being injured as 
much as the fruit-grower when the bees suck overripe or 
injured fruits. 

Beekeepers naturally appear biased in seeking to prove 
the bee a harmless and solely beneficial insect. They even 
minimize the annoyance of the stings in their loyalty to the 
bee. In pointing out the benefits of bees and denying in- 
juries so often laid at their door, the present writer may also 
be accused of this bias. The investigations that have been 
made, however, uniformly support the contentions of the 
bee enthusiasts and the supposedly harmed fruit-grower 
should be led to suspect that his judgment is in error. The 
ranks of the bee advocates are year by year being materially 
augmented by fruit-growers who have become convinced of 
the correctness of the attitude that the beekeeper maintains 
toward his bees. 

Supposedly poisonous honeys. 

Frequent mention is made in the literature on bees of 
supposedly poisonous honeys. It is of course true that the 
juices of many plants are poisonous to man and this may be 
the foundation for the belief that nectar of such species also 
contains the poisonous principles. Among the plants some- 
times reported to produce poisonous nectar from which 
poisonous honeys are made by the bees, are mountain laurel 
(Kalmia latifolia), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), yellow 
jessamine (Gelsemium semper vir ens) , sweet pepper bush 
(Clethra alnifolia) and rhododendrons (one species of which 
is supposed to be the source of honey reported by Xenophon 
as having poisoned his soldiers) . It would be unsafe to deny 
that the nectar of any plant produces a poisonous honey, but 
2b 



370 Beekeeping 

it is certain that not all of the plants named above produce 
such honey. Mountain laurel, yellow jessamine and rho- 
dodendrons are abundant in the lower Appalachian Moun- 
tains and there are more bees to a square mile in this section 
than anywhere else in the United States. Assuredly much 
nectar is gathered by bees from these plants, and if all the 
honey from these sources were poisonous there would be an 
epidemic of poisoning annually in this region. Clethra is the 
source of much honey, eaten widely with immunity. If any 
plant is ever the source of- poisonous honey, this fact should 
be determined and made known, but the vague rumors now 
current are valueless. It should be remembered in this 
connection that certain individuals have idiosyncrasies 
toward certain foods and this may account for some of the 
recorded cases of honey poisoning. In some rare individuals 
the eating of honey from any source or thick sugar syrup 
causes violent pains in the stomach. Until physiologists 
agree as to the cause of this phenomenon it is unsafe to 
speculate, but assuredly honeys should not be ranked as 
poisonous because they cause distress in eccentric indi- 
viduals. 

Plant honey-dew. 

By all odds, the main source of the sugars that bees get 
is nectar from flowers. There are other sources which should 
be mentioned, however, which occur more frequently than 
is recognized by beekeepers. In the absence of floral nectar, 
bees gather sugars from any available source, giving prefer- 
ence to those which have attractive odors. Many species of 
plants are provided with glands which secrete sweet liquids 
and which are located outside the flowers (extra-floral nec- 
taries) . Examples of this are found on the leaves of cotton 
(Gossypium hirsutum) and Hawaiian hau (Hibiscus or Par- 
itium iiliaceum, on outside of flower bracts also). Various 
acacias have glands on the stems. Other examples are 
found on castor beans (Ricinus) and partridge-pea (Cham- 
cecrista fasciculata) and other cases are mentioned in the 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 371 

list of honey-plants at the close of this chapter. To the 
product which the bee makes from sugar from these sources 
the name plant honey-dew honey is given. 

Insect honey-dew. 

The main source of honey-dew is, however, not plant 
secretion but insect excretion. Certain plant-sucking 
insects, belonging to the order Hemiptera, such as plant- 
lice (Aphidae), scale insects (Coccidse), leaf hoppers (Jas- 
sidse), white flies (Aleyrodidse) and tree hoppers (Mem- 
bracidae), all belonging to the Homoptera, suck the juices 
of the various plants on which they are specifically parasitic 
and the portion of the sap not utilized by the sucking insect 
is ejected, falling on the leaves and stems of the plant and 
even running off to the ground below. Many of these juices 
are sweet and are gathered by bees exactly as they gather 
nectar, except that if nectar is available honey-dew is aban- 
doned. This is carried to the hive, ripened and sealed, 
making what is known as honey-dew honey. This substance 
is high in its content of gums and is a poor food for bees in 
winter. It was formerly believed that the honey-dew of 
some aphids was secreted from the tubular processes on 
the dorsal side of the abdomen but it is now established 
that it is an intestinal excretion, just as in the other families. 
Honey-dew is gathered by ants perhaps more than by 
bees. 

The sugars in honey-dew honey are the same as those in 
honey and the chief chemical difference is in the higher 
percentage of gums. The flavor is usually poor, and most 
honey-dew honeys are dark in color and granulate quickly, 
often before sealing. An exception is that from the sugar- 
cane leaf-hopper (Perkinsiella saccharicida) of Hawaii which 
rarely granulates. Honey-dew honey is probably much more 
common than is appreciated by beekeepers, for the excreting 
insects are present in millions every summer and probably 
many of our honeys contain small amounts of this substance. 
It is not unlikely that the variation in gum content of hon- 



372 Beekeeping 

eys and the variation in color from a supposedly uniform 
floral source may in part be due to varying admixtures of 
honey-dew. 

In the summer of 1909, honey-dew honey was exceptionally 
abundant throughout the eastern United States. This was 
due not only to the shortage of nectar but to an exceptionally 
large number of aphids. The prevalence of these insects is 
determined largely by immediate climatic conditions and 
they are destroyed by millions by heavy rains. Dry seasons 
may therefore dry up the nectaries and at the same time 
allow plant-lice to propagate excessively, giving us our 
honey-dew seasons. 

ANNOTATED LIST OF HONEY-PLANTS 

In the following list an effort is made to give the plants of 
value to the beekeeper, as sources of nectar and pollen, with 
brief notes which will be helpful in determining the relative 
importance of the various species. While this list is chiefly 
for plants in the United States, mention is made of some 
important plants of tropical America, especially of Hawaii 
and Porto Rico. The list will also apply to Canada. 

The arrangement of these notes in alphabetical order is 
adopted as placing the notes where they will first be sought 
by the majority of readers, under the common name of the 
species. The following of the natural order, by families and 
genera, would show relationships which can only be sug- 
gested here by naming under each family the species of that 
family that are mentioned in the notes. 

This list is unavoidably incomplete because so little sys- 
tematic work has been done on honey-plants. There are 
hundreds of valuable notes on these plants in the bee journals 
but they are hard to find and often it is impossible to tell 
what species is being discussed since the scientific name is 
not given or is given incorrectly and since the same common 
name is sometimes given to two or more species in various 
parts of the United States. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



373 



Acacias, wattles, Acacia spp. Shrubs or trees, flowers small, in 
heads. Catclaw, A. Greggii, May and July. Honey white, 
fine flavor. Catclaw, A. Greggii and A. Wrightii, semi-arid 
regions of Texas and Arizona. Catclaw and the closely related 
huajilla, Havardia (Xygia) brevifolia, are of first rank among 
honey-plants. The various wattles are listed as important 
honey sources in Australia, Africa and tropical America. 
Black wattle, A. decurrens mollis, and other species are of 
value in California and in Hawaii. Huisache, A. (Vachellia) 
Farnesiana, is also present along the Rio Grande. A. con- 
stricta, June, Arizona. Vari- 
ous species in subtropical re- 
gions, probably all valuable. 

Aceraceae ; see Maple family. 

jEsculaceae ; see Buckeye family. 

Ailanthus, tree of heaven, Ailanthus 
glandulosa. Native of China, 
reported in eastern United 
States and as valuable in Cali- 
fornia. Honey ill-tasting. 
Extra-floral nectaries present. 

Ailanthus family, Simarubaceae ; 
see Ailanthus and Manchineel. 

Alder, Alnus spp. Pollen. 

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa (Fig. 146). 
Perennial, 12-18 inches, ex- 
cessively branched after cut- 
ting, short raceme of blue or 
violet flowers. Blooms several 

times during summer, depending on number of cuttings. Honey 
light in color, granulates quickly, especially after extraction, 
flavor excellent. Grown throughout United States but valuable 
as a honey-plant only west of Mississippi River (except in rare 
cases). Native of old world. The main source of honey in the 
irrigated regions of Colorado, Utah and other western states. 
The honey from this source is reported as amber from more 
southern localities, but this may be due to an admixture of 
other honeys. Alfalfa honey is produced extensively as comb- 
honey, but in this form it suffers in comparison with that of 
the clovers because of rapid granulation. The flavor is de- 
scribed as mint-like. Also called Spanish trefoil, lucerne and 
purple medic. An excellent forage plant yielding several crops 
a season. Frequently cut before or during blooming period. 
M . denticulata and M. Iwpulina reported from California. 

Alfileria, pin clover, Erodium cicutarium. Annual, April-Septem- 




Alfalfa. 



374 Beekeeping 

ber, throughout United States, especially California. Native 
of old world ; honey of good quality, pollen abundant. E. 
moschatum, good in California. 

Algaroba; see Mesquite and also Saman. 

Alsike clover, Trifolium hybridum. Perennial, erect, 1-2 feet, 
quite similar to white clover except in size. Cultivated ex- 
tensively (usually with timothy) for hay. Flowers white 
tipped with pink, to pink. May-October, but especially June- 
July. Honey only slightly darker than that from white 
clover. This clover is rapidly increasing in importance to the 
beekeeper. Called also Swedish clover. Not a hybrid ^be- 
tween white and red clovers as name indicates. 

Amaryllidaceae ; see Amaryllis family. 

Amaryllis family, Araaryllidacea3 ; see Century Plant and Lophiola. 

Ambrosiacese ; see Ragweed family. 

American bee balm ; see Horsemint. 

American holly ; see Gallberry. 

Ampelopsis, Ampelopsis spp. Nectar, pollen. 

Anacardiaceas ; see Sumac family. 

Anemone, Anemone quinquefolia. Pollen. 

Antigonon (Corculum). Listed by Root, 1910, Florida, California, 
tropics. 

Apple, Pyrus Mains (Fig. 2). Honey light amber, superb; pollen. 

Apple family, Malacese (a subfamily of Rosacese) ; see Pear, Apple, 
Juneberry and Haws. 

Aquif oliaceae ; see Holly family. 

Asclepiadaceae ; see Milkweed family. 

Ash, Fraxinus spp. Pollen. 

Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis. Honey amber, pollen. 

Asters, Aster spp. Perennial (rarely annual), 1-4 feet or more, 
ray flowers white or purple, sometimes pink or blue, July to 
frost. Honey amber in color, flavor often pronounced. 
Throughout the United States, especially in North, different 
species being adapted to differences in soils and moisture. 
A. ericoides and A. novai-anqlioz are said to be the most val- 
uable to the beekeeper. The goldenrods which bloom at the 
same time and which are more conspicuous get much of the 
credit for nectar-secretion which belongs rightly to the asters. 
Valuable especially in providing winter stores, although the 
so-called fall honeys are not so good for this purpose as the 
purer types of honey (see Wintering). Britton and Brown 
mention 142 species of this genus in the United States and 250 
species in all. Plants of related genera are also sometimes 
known as asters. The species blooming early are rarely 
valuable as honey-plants. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



375 



Azalea, wild honeysuckle, Azalea spp. Some nectar, pollen. 



Ball or button sage ; see Sage. 

Banana, Musa spp. Cultivated in Florida and extensively in 
tropical America. Pollen. 

Banana family, Musaceas ; see Banana. 

Barberry, Berberis vulgaris. Pollen, nectar. 

Barberry family, Berberidacese ; see Barberry, Berberis pinnata 
and B. trifoliolata. 

Basswood, linden, whitewood, Tilia americana (Fig. 147). In 
forests and in moist soils, 
tree to 125 feet, leaves 
oblique, flowers borne on 
bracts 2-4 inches, June- 
July (usually at end of 
white clover honey-flow). 
Honey light amber to 
white, flavor when un- 
mixed is pronounced (es- 
pecially if extracted when 
unripe) and not especially 
pleasant, but when mixed 
with white clover honey 
is exceptionally fine. In 
rich woods in northeast- 
ern United States and in 
mountains south to Geor- 
gia, west to Nebraska. 
Formerly much more 
abundant. The culti- 
vated species, T. europcea, 
is equally valuable when 
present. The wood is 
used in making the one-piece sections used almost universally 
for comb-honey. Nectar secretion quickly affected by adverse 
weather conditions. A heavy yielder when weather preceding 
the honey-flow is favorable. The heavy cutting of these trees 
has greatly decreased the importance of this tree to the bee- 
keeper. The name linn (or lin) or lime tree is given to the 
European species, T. europcea. T. heterophylla is also common 
(called bee-tree). T. pubescens has a more southern distribu- 
tion. The other species of Tiliaceae are mainly tropical. 

Bayberry ; see Sweet-Gale. 

Bayberry family, Myricaceae ; see Sweet-Gale. 

Bearberry ; see Manzanita. 




Fig. 147. — Basswood. 



376 Beekeeping 

Bee balm, Melissa officinalis. Nectar. 

Beech, Fagus spp. Pollen. 

Beech family, Fagacese ; see Beech, Chinquapin, Chestnut and 
Oak. 

Bee-tree ; see Basswood. 

Beggar's tick; see Spanish Needle. 

Bell-flower, campanula, campanula, Ipomcea spp. Of primary 
importance in Cuba, honey white of finest flavor. Other 
species in this family furnish nectar. 

Bell-flower family, Campanulacese ; see Bell-flower. 

Berberidaceas ; see Barberry family. 

Berberis pinnata. California. Honey amber. 

Berberis trifoliolata. Texas, January-February, nectar and abun- 
dant pollen. 

Betulaceae ; see Birch family. 

Bignoniaceae ; see Trumpet-creeper family. 

Birch, Betula spp. Pollen. 

Birch family, Betulaceae ; see Hornbeam, Hazelnut, Birch and Alder. 

Blackberry ; see Raspberry. 

Black mangrove, Avicennia nitida. Perhaps the most abundant 
source of nectar ever observed. Killed by frost in Florida in 
1894 and is returning abundantly. Found in Porto Rico. 

Black sage ; see Sage. 

Black ti-ti ; see Ti-ti. 

Black walnut, Juglans nigra. Pollen. 

Black wattle ; see Acacia. 

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis. Pollen. 

Bloodwort family. Hsemodoraceas ; see Morong. 

Blueberry, Vaccinium spp. Nectar, pollen. 

Blue-curls, Trichostema lanceolatum. Honey white, granulates 
quickly, August-November. 

Blue gum ; see Eucalyptus. 

Blue-thistle ; see Viper's Bugloss. 

Blueweed ; see Viper's Bugloss. 

Bokhara clover ; see Sweet Clover. 

Boneset, thoroughwort, Eupatoriumperfoliatum. Nectar. Autumn. 

Borage family, Boraginaceae ; see Viper's Bugloss. 

Boraginaceae ; see Borage family. 

Buckeye, JEsculus glabra. Pollen, nectar. 

Buckeye family, iEsculaceae ; see Horsechestnut, Buckeye and 
California Buckeye. 

Buckthorn, coffee berry, Rhamnus cathartica. 

Buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae; see Buckthorn, Cascara Sagrada, 
Coffee Berry, White Lilac and Rattan Vine. 

Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum (Fig. 148). Annual, 1-3 feet, 






The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



377 



blooms June-September, depending on time of planting. Honey 
dark purple in color, flavor strong and rank, of use mainly in 
baking, body usually heavy although 
in rapid flows it may be thin. In New 
York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, espe- 
cially, but found in almost all parts of 
northern United States. Native of old 
world. Sometimes escapes from culti- 
vation. Reliable as a nectar plant es- 
pecially in more northern localities. 
Nectar secreted most abundantly in the 
morning. 

Buckwheat family, Polygonacese ; see Wild 
Buckwheat, Antigonon, Buckwheat, 
Heartsease and Polygonum lapathi- 
jolium. 

Bur-marigold ; see Spanish Needle. 

Bush clovers, Lespedeza spp. 

Butterfly-weed ; see Milkweed. 

Button-bush, honey-balls, Cephalanthus oc- 
cidentalis. In swamps, honey mild, 
light color. 




Fig. 148. — Buckwheat. 



Cabbage palmetto, Sabal palmetto. To 30 feet, July- August, honey 
white, mild, Florida. 

Cabbage tree ; see Moca. 

Cactaceae ; see Cactus family. 

Cactus, prickly pear, Opuntia spp. Locally in deserts and semi- 
arid regions, honey heavy of poor flavor. 

Cactus family, Cactacese ; see Cactus. 

Caesalpinaceae ; see Senna family. 

California buckeye, JUsculus calif ornica. Considerable nectar. 
Reported that the honey poisons the bees (California) ; more 
than doubtful. 

California laurel, Umbellularia californica. 

California poppy, Eschscholtzia californica. 
some nectar, California. 

Campanilla ; see Bell-flower. 

Campanula ; see Bell-flower. 

Campanulacese ; see Bell-flower family. 

Canada thistle, Carduus arvensis. Honey of good quality. 

Caper family, Capparidaceae ; see Cleome and Jackass Clover. 

Capparidaceae ; see Caper family. 

Caprif oliaceae ; see Honeysuckle family. 

Carpet-grass, Lippia nodiflora. Of value in California. 



December-March. 
March-July, pollen, 



378 



Beekeeping 



Carrot family, Umbelliferse. Various species are of minor impor- 
tance as sources of nectar and pollen. 
Cascara Sagrada, Rhamnus Purshiana. Honey dark, does not 

granulate. California. 
Catalpa, catawba, Catalpa speciosa. Of little value. 
Catawba ; see Catalpa. 

Catnip, Nepeta Cataria. Nectar. Unimportant. 
Century plant, Agave americana. Heavy yielder in semi-arid tropi- 
cal localities, July-August. Also other species of Agave. 
Chestnut, Castanea dentata. Some nectar, pollen. 
Chicory, Cichorium Intybus. July-October, eastern United States. 
Chicory subfamily; see Chicory, Dandelion and Sow Thistle. 
China-tree, Pride of India, Melia azedarach. Spring, of value in 

early brood-rearing, Texas. 
Chinquapin, Castanea pumila. Honey dark amber of most unpleas- 
ant flavor, Georgia and other 
southern States. 
Cichoriaceae ; see Chicory. 
Cistaceae ; see Rock-rose family. 
Citrus fruits, lime, orange, grape fruit, 
lemon, Citrus spp. Cultivated, 
Florida, California, Texas, some 
species wild in Florida. Trees. 
Honey white, heavy body, deli- 
cious flavor. The value of these 
trees to the beekeeper is probably 
overestimated and honey from 
other sources is probably sold as 
" orange honey," under which name 
the citrus honeys are usually all 
sold. 
Clematis, Clematis sp. Superb honey 
when sufficiently abundant, New 
England. Pollen. 
Clematis ligusticif olia. In hills of Cali- 
fornia, June- July. Pollen abun- 
dant. 
Cleome, spider-flower, Cleome serrulata 
and C. spinosa (Fig. 149). Herbs 
2-3 feet, erect, flowers pink or white 
in C. serrulata, purple in C. spinosa. 
C. serrulata in prairies Illinois west 
spinosa, from tropical America, some- 
times cultivated, Illinois to Louisiana. C. serrulata is called 
Rocky Mountain Bee-plant by Colorado beekeepers. Under 




Fig. 



149. — Spider-flower 
(Cleome). 

to Rocky Mountains ; C. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



379 



favorable conditions both species are heavy yielders, but they 
are, nevertheless, not of primary importance. 

Clethracese ; see White Alder family. 

Clover ; see Sweet Clover, White Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson 
Clover, Bush Clovers and Alfileria. 

Cocklebur, Xanthium pennsylvanicum. Pollen in Autumn. 

Cocoanut palm, Cocos nucifera. Honey amber, of secondary im- 
portance, West Indies. 

Coffee berry, Rhamnus californica. Honey amber, April-May. 
Foothills of Sierra Nevada Mountains. 

Coffee berry ; see also Buck- 
thorn. 

Compositse ; see Thistle family. 

Coral-berry ; see Indian Cur- 
rant. 

Corculum ; see Antigonon 
leptopus. 

Coreopsis ; see Spanish Needle. 

Corn, Zea mays. Pollen. Re- 
ported as sometimes yield- 
ing nectar from the tassels. 

Cornaceae ; see Dogwood 
family. 

Cotton, Gossypium hirsutum 
(Fig. 150). Cultivated, 
southern States. June- 
August. Increasing in 
importance. Extra-floral 
nectaries on leaves and 
bracts. 

Cowpea, Vigna sinensis. 
Honey light, of poor flavor, 
nectaries. 

Creeping thyme, Thymus Serpyllum. Perennial herb, branched, 
creeping, forming dense mats, flowers in clusters. Honey 
probably amber, flavor not as good as that of many other 
honeys. In thickets and waste places south to Pennsylvania. 
June-September. Native of Europe. From a plant of this 
genus the celebrated honey of the ancient Greeks was pro- 
duced, especially on Mount Hymettus. 

Crimson clover, Trifolium incarnatum. Annual erect, 6-30 inches, 
flowers crimson in long heads. Honey quite like that of 
white clover. Cultivated for hay and in waste places. Na- 
tive of Europe. Blooms somewhat earlier than the other 
clovers. 




Fig. 150. — Cotton. 
Bees get nectar from extra-floral 



380 



Beekeeping 



Crowfoot family. Ranunculacese ; 

Clematis and Meadow-rue. 
Cruciferse ; see Mustard family. 
Cucumber ; see Gourd family. 
Cucumber tree ; see Tulip Poplar. 
Cucurbitacese ; see Gourd family. 
Currant, Ribes spp. Pollen, nectar. 
Cyperacese ; see Sedge family. 
Cyrilla family, Cyrillacese ; see Ti-ti. 
Cyrillacese ; see Cyrilla family. 



see Anemone, Liverwort, 



Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, or Leontodon Taraxacum (Fig. 
151). Perennial herb growing close to ground. Flowers 

yellow, blooms throughout 
year but most abundantly in 
early spring (with or following 
fruit bloom in North) . Honey 
amber. In waste places and a 
weed in lawns and fields 
throughout the United States. 
Not valuable as a source of 
surplus honey, but especially 
helpful in building up colonies 
in early spring. 

Date palm, Phoenix dactylifera. 
Abundant nectar, California, 
Arizona. 

Desert willow, Chilopsis linearis. 
New Mexico. 

Dogwood family, Cornacese ; see 
Tupelo. 

Dutch clover ; see White Clover. 

Ebenaceae ; see Ebony family. 
Ebony family, Ebenaceae ; see Per- 
simmon. 
Elder, Sambucus spp. Pollen, 
nectar. 
Fig. 151. — Dandelion. Elm, Ulmus spp. Pollen. 

Elm family, Ulmacese ; see Elm, 
Gran.ieno and Hackberry. 
English walnut, Juglans regia. Nectar, pollen. 
Ericaceae ; see Heath family. 

Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus spp. Numerous species of value intro- 
duced into California. The species vary greatly in nectar 



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■■,.,. ■•'.■■ h,\; ':>■ 






Wy^mfi 


/i- ;; ; 


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(M j 







The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 381 

secretion. Honey-scented gum, E. melliodora, swamp mahog- 
any gum, E. robusta, white iron wood, E. leucoxylon, and blue 
gum, E. globulus, are those most valued. Primary honey 
plants in Australia. Honey sometimes strong flavored. 

Eucalyptus family, Myrtacese ; see Eucalyptus and Rose Apple. 

Evening primrose family, Onagracese ; see Willow-herb. 

Eysenhardtia, rock brush, Viborquia orthocar-pa. Important in 
southwest Texas. 

Fagaceae ; see Beech family. 

Fig wort family, Scrophulariaceae ; see Mullen and Simpson's 
Honey Plant. 

Fireweed, Erechtites hieracifolia. Eastern United States, July- 
September. 

Fireweed ; see also Willow-herb. 

Frostweed ; see Rockrose. 

Gallberry, inkberry, Ilex glabra. Shrub, 2-6 feet, leaves ever- 
green, few teeth at apex or entire. May- July. Honey light 
color and of fine quality. Sandy soils, Massachusetts to 
Florida, west to Louisiana, mainly along coast, abundant in 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, 
especially in cut-over forest lands. An important and in- 
creasingly valuable source of nectar in the southern States 
where considerable honey is produced (chiefly for local con- 
sumption). A reliable yielder. Other species of holly are also 
valuable, as American holly, I. opaca, April- June. 

Geraniaceae ; see Geranium family. 

Geranium family, Geraniacese ; see Alfileria. 

Goldenrod, Solidago spp. Perennial herbs, 1-5 feet, flowers 
generally yellow in panicles or heads, August to frost. Honey 
golden yellow, not of finest flavor, heavy body. Various 
species are adapted to all types of soil, but those growing in 
moist soils are the only ones of value to the beekeeper. The 
value of the goldenrods is probably exaggerated. In many 
places they are the most conspicuous flowers in the fall and 
get credit for honey which probably comes mainly from the 
asters. Eighty-five species, mostly in North America. The 
species which bloom early are usually valueless. The odor of 
the fall honeys is so pronounced that it can be detected some 
distance from the hive when freshly gathered. 

Gooseberry, Grossularia spp. Pollen, nectar. 

Gooseberry family, Grossulariacese ; see Gooseberry and Currant. 

Gourd family, Cucurbitacese. Various species furnish pollen and 
nectar, especially the genera Cucurbita, Cucumis and Citrullus, 
pumpkin, squash, cucumber and watermelon. 



382 



Beekeeping 



Gramineae ; see Grass family. 

Granjeno, Celtis pallida. Southwest Texas, of value. 

Grape family, Vitaceae ; see Grapes, Ampelopsis and Virginia Creeper. 

Grape fruit ; see Citrus Fruit. 

Grapes, Vitis spp. Pollen, some nectar. 

Grass family, Gramineae ; see Sorghum and Corn. Wind pol- 
linated, some species visited for pollen. 

Greasewood, Adenostema fasciculatum. April- July. California. 

Grossulariacese ; see Gooseberry family. 

Guama ; see Guava. 

Guava, Inga vera, and guama, /. laurina. Of primary importance 

in Porto Rico, found elsewhere 
in West Indies and Central 
America. 
Gum ; see Eucalyptus. 

Hackberry, Celtis spp. Nectar, 

abundant pollen. 
Hsemodoracess ; see Bloodwort 

family. 
Hamamelidaceae ; see Witch-hazel 

family. 
Haws, Crataegus spp. Nectar, 

pollen. 
Hazelnut, Corylus spp. Pollen. 
Heartsease, lady's thumb, smart- 
weed, Persicaria persicaria 
(Fig. 1 52 ) . Annual herb , 6-24 
inches or more (especially in 
middle west). Flowers in 
dense racemes, pink and 
purple, June-October, espe- 
cially August-October. Honey 
light amber to dark, flavor 
good but easily lost by heat- 
ing, granulates. On waste 
land throughout the United 
States, often abundant. An important source in middle west. 
Native to old world. The common name heartsease is given 
to this plant by most beekeepers. There are about 200 species 
of this genus, 71 occurring in North America, probably most 
of them contributing nectar. 
Heath family, Ericaceae ; see Azalea, Rhododendron, Mountain 
Laurel, Sourwood and Manzanita. The heather, Calluna 
vulgaris, of Europe is a member of this family. 




Fig. 152. — Heartsease. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



383 



Valuable in Porto Rico. 



Much less important 



of 



Heather ; see Heath family. 

Hemp, Cannabis sativa. Pollen, eastern United States. 

Hickory, Carya sp. Pollen. 

Hog plum, jobo, Spondias lutea 

Holly ; see Gallberry. 

Holly family, Aquifoliacese ; see Gallberry. 

Honey-balls ; see Button-bush. 

Honey-locust, Gleditsia triacanthos. Nectar 
than black locust. 

Honey-scented gum ; see Eucalyptus. 

Honeysuckle ; see Tartarian Honeysuckle. 

Honeysuckle, wild ; see Azalea. 

Honeysuckle family, Caprifoliacess ; see Elder, Indian Currant and 
Tartarian Honeysuckle. 

Hop, Humulus lupulus. Pollen, general in the United States. 

Horehound, Marrubium vulgare. Common throughout most 
United States, native of old world. 
Honey dark amber, strong flavor, sur- 
plus locally in California. 

Hornbeam, Carpinus caroliniana. Tree to 
40 feet, pollen, eastern United States. 

Horsechestnut, JiJsculus Hippocastanum. 
Some pollen and nectar. 

Horsemint, Monarda punctata (Fig. 153). 
Perennial herb, 2-3 feet, flowers in 
whorls on stem and terminal, April- 
June in Texas, later farther north. 
Honey amber, flavor somewhat strong. 
Southern New York to Florida, west 
to Wisconsin and Texas, especially val- 
uable in eastern Texas where it is of 
major importance. In the genus Mon- 
arda there are ten species, probably 
all valuable to the beekeeper. Wild 
bergamot, M. fistulosa, and American 
bee balm, M . didyma, should be espe- 
cially mentioned. M. clinopodioides is 
also listed for Texas as important. 

Huajilla ; see Acacias. 

Huckleberry, Gaylussacia spp. New England 
along coast. 

Huckleberry family, Vacciniacese ; see Huckleberry and Blueberry. 

Huisache ; see Acacia. 

Hydrophyllaceae ; see Water-leaf family. 

Hypericaceae ; see St. John's- wort family. 




Fig. 153. — Horsemint. 



of importance 



384 



Beekeeping 



Indian currant, coral-berry, Symphoricarpos racemosus. Nectar, 

July. 
Inkberry ; see Gallberry. 

Iron-weed, Vernonia spp. Nectar, late summer. 
Iron-wood ; see Ti-ti. 

Jackass clover, Wislizenia refracta. August-October. Honey 
white. San Joaquin valley, California, increasing. 

Jerusalem artichoke ; see Sunflower. 

Jobo ; see Hog plum. 

Judas tree, red bud, Cercis canadensis. Nectar, pollen. 

Juglandacese ; see Walnut family. 

Juneberry, service berry, Amelanchier canadensis. March-May, 
tree to 60 feet. 

Keawe ; see Mesquite. 



Lady's thumb ; see Heartsease. 

Lantana, Lantana sp. Valuable in Hawaii. 

Lauracese ; see Laurel family. 

Laurel family, Lauracese ; see Red Bay and California Laurel. 

Leatherwood ; see Ti-ti. 

Leguminosae ; see Pea 

family. 
Lemon ; see Citrus 

Fruits. 
Lilac ; see White Li- 
lac. 
Liliaceae ; see Lily 

family. 
Lilies, Lilium spp. 

Pollen. 
Lily family, Liliacese ; 
see Onion, Lilies, 
Asparagus and 
Yucca. 
Lima bean, Phaseo- 
lus sp. Impor- 
tant locally in 
California, where 
Fig. 154. — Locust. grown exten- 

sively. 
Lime ; see Citrus Fruits. 
Lime tree ; see Basswood. 
Lin ; see Basswood. 




The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 385 

Linden ; see Basswood. 

Linden family, Tiliaceae ; see Basswood. 

Linn ; see Basswood. 

Liverwort, Hepatica triloba. Pollen. 

Locust, Robinia Pseudacacia (Fig. 154). Tree to 80 feet, flowers 
white, fragrant, in drooping racemes. May-June. Honey 
white, fine flavor, heavy body. Pennsylvania south to Georgia 
and west to Iowa. There are six species of Robinia native to 
America, of special value as honey-plants where white clover is 
not dependable, usually furnishes nectar for about ten days only. 

Locust ; see also Honey Locust. 

Logwood, Hcematoxylum campechianum. In Jamaica this produces 
a honey of superb quality and color. Native of tropical 
America and West Indies. 

Loosestrife, Lysimachia vulgaris. Pollen. 

Lophiola, Lophiola americana. Pine barren bogs, eastern United 
States, June-August. 

Loranthaceae ; see Mistletoe family. 

Lucern ; see Alfalfa. 

Lupine, Lupinus spp. Nectarless, visited for pollen. 

Lupinus affinis. Reported from California as a nectar plant. 

Madder family, Rubiaceae ; see Button-bush. 

Magnolia, Magnolia spp. Not important. 

Magnolia family, Magnoliaceae ; see Magnolia and Tulip Poplar. 

Magnoliaceae ; see Magnolia family. 

Malaceae ; see Apple family. 

Mallow, Malva spp. Some nectar, pollen. 

Mallow family, Malvaceae ; see Marshmallow, Mallow, Cotton and 

Sida spp. 
Malvaceae ; see Mallow family. 
Manazanillo ; see Manchineel. 
Manchineel, manazanillo, Hippomane Mancinella. Important in 

southern Florida. 
Manzanita, bearberry, Arctostaphylos sp. Shrub or small tree, 

November-February. Foothills of western slope (2000- 

9000 feet), California. Honey amber (or white) of excellent 

flavor. 
Maple family, Aceraceae ; see Maples. 
Maples, Acer spp. Nectar, especially pollen. 
Marshmallow, Althaea spp. Nectar, unimportant. 
Meadow-rue, Thalictrum spp. Pollen. 
Meadow sweet, Spiraza latifolia. Some nectar. 
Melia family, Meliaceae ; see China-tree. 
Meliaceae ; see Melia family. 

2c 



386 Beekeeping 

Menthaceae ; see Mint family. 

Mesquite, Prosopis glandulosa. Shrub and tree, flowers in dense 
spikes, seed in constricted pods. April and June-July. 
Honey light amber, of good flavor. Fifteen species in tropical 
regions. P. glandulosa is of value as a honey-plant in the semi- 
arid regions of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, extending 
into Mexico. P. juli flora, introduced from Mexico, is the 
chief floral nectar source in Hawaii (called algaroba, keawe), 
honey white, granulates quickly. This species is also found in 
Peru and has recently been introduced to Porto Rico. P. 
velutina and P. pubescens, April- July reported from Arizona. 

Milkweed, Asclepias spp. Various species of value, especially 
those in swamps. Pollen masses adhere to bees, sometimes 
making them incapable of flight. Butterfly weed, pleurisy- 
root, A. tuber osa, especially valuable. 

Milkweed family. Asclepiadaceas ; see Milkweed. 

Mimosa spp. Tropical and subtropical. Probably of value. 

Mimosa family, Mimosacese ; see Acacia, Mesquite, Guava, Saman 
and Mimosa spp. 

Mimosacese ; see Mimosa family. 

Mint, Mentha spp. Honey amber, of value locally. 

Mint family, Menthacese ; see Blue-curls, Horehound, Catnip, 
Sages, Horsemint, Pennyroyal, Bee Balm, Creeping Thyme 
and Mint. An important family. 

Mistletoe, Phoradendron spp. Parasitic, December- January, 
Texas, California, earliest source of nectar in Texas. 

Mistletoe family, Loranthaceae ; see Mistletoe. 

Moca, cabbage tree, Geoffrcea jamaicensis. Of marked value, West 
Indies, tropical America. 

Moraceae ; see Mulberry family. 

Morong, red-root, Gyrotheca capitata. Pine barrens. 

Mountain laurel, Kalmia spp. Valuable locally, Allegheny Moun- 
tains. 

Mulberry, Morus spp. Pollen. 

Mulberry family, Moracese ; see Mulberry, Hop and Hemp. 

Mullen, Verbaseum spp. Pollen, nectar in some species. 

Musaceae ; see Banana family. 

Mustard ; see Rape. 

Mustard family, Cruciferse ; see Rape and Radish. Numerous 
species of this family are valuable but are not of primary 
importance. 

Myricaceae ; see Bayberry family. 

Myrtaceae ; see Eucalyptus family. 

Oak, Quercus spp. Pollen, some nectar. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



387 



Oleacese ; see Olive family. 

Olive, Olea europcea. April-May, California, value doubtful. 

Olive family, Oleacese ; see Ash, Privet and Olive. 

Onagracese ; see Evening Primrose family. 

Onion, Allium Cepa. Nectar. Valuable where abundant. 

Orange ; see Citrus Fruits. 

Orchid family, Orchidaceae. Usually adapted to larger insects. 

Some pollen. 
Orchidaceae ; see Orchid family. 



Palm family, Palmacese ; see Cabbage Palmetto, Saw Palmetto, 
Date Palm, Royal Palm and 
Cocoanut Palm. 

Palmacese ; see Palm family. 

Paloverde, Cercidium torreyanum. 
Reported as valuable in Ari- 
zona, May. 

Papaveraceae ; see Poppy family. 

Partridge pea, Chamcecrista fasci- 
culata (Fig. 155). Annual 
herb, 1-2^ feet, leaves sensi- 
tive, flowers yellow, solitary 
or in small clusters. Nec- 
taries on petioles. July- 
September. Honey light 
amber, body thin, flavor not 
good, of value only for bak- 
ing. Maine to Florida, west 
to Kansas and Texas, but Fig. 155. - Partridge pea. 

valuable as a producer of 

surplus only in Georgia and Florida. The species of this 
genus are not nectar yielders, except such as have extra-floral 
nectaries, from which nectar is quickly washed out in rainy 
weather. 

Pea family, Leguminosse. This family contains many species of 
the highest importance to beekeepers. The honeys are usually 
white. See Lupines, Lupinus affinis, Alfalfa, Sweet Clover, 
White Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson Clover, Wild Alfalfa, 
Locust, Moca, Bush Clover, Vetches, Lima Bean and Cowpea. 

Peach, Prunus persica. Nectar, pollen. 

Pear, Pyrus spp. Nectar, pollen. 

Pecan, Carya sp. Pollen. 

Pennyroyal, Hedeoma pulegioides. Annual, eastern United States, 
July-September. Four species in Florida of value locally, 
January-February. 




388 Beekeeping 

Pepper tree, Schinus Molle. Southern California, introduced. 
Regular producer of nectar. Honey amber, strong flavor. 

Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana. Tree to 100 feet, May- June, 
eastern United States. 

Phacelia hispida and P. tanacetifolia. Of value in California. 
Honey of P. hispida granulates quickly. Species of Phacelia 
valued by beekeepers in Europe. 

Plantaginaceae ; see Plantain family. 

Plantain, Plantago spp. Pollen. 

Plantain family, Plantaginacese ; see Plantain. 

Pleurisy-root ; see Milkweed. 

Plums, Prunus spp. Cultivated and various wild species. Spring. 

Polygonaceae ; see Buckwheat family. 

Polygonum lapathifolium and P. punctatum are of value in Cali- 
fornia. 

Poma rosa ; see Rose Apple. 

Poplar ; see Tulip Poplar. 

Poplars, Populus spp. Pollen. 

Poppy, Papaver spp. Pollen. 

Poppy family, Papaveracese ; see Poppy, Prickly Poppy, Blood- 
root and California Poppy. 

Potato family, Solanacese ; see Tobacco. 

Prickly pear ; see Cactus. 

Prickly poppy, Argemone platyceras. Texas, pollen, May-July. 

Pride of India ; see China-tree. 

Primrose family, Primulacese ; see Loosestrife. 

Primulaceae ; see Primrose family. 

Privet, Ligustrum spp. Not important. 

Pumpkin ; see Gourd family. 

Purple medic ; see Alfalfa. 

Purple sage ; see Sage. 

Radish, Raphanus sativus. Pollen, nectar. 

Ragweed, Ambrosia elatior. Annual herb, 1-6 feet, July to frost, 

flowers in racemes, green. Throughout United States, a 

troublesome weed. An important source of pollen, yields 

no nectar. 
Ragweed family, AmbrosiacesB ; see Ragweed and Cocklebur. 
Ranunculaceae ; see Crowfoot family. 
Rape, mustard, Brassica spp. Pollen and nectar. Especially 

valuable in California (B. nigra). Honey granulates rapidly. 
Raspberry, blackberry, Rubus spp. Various species of value. 
Raspberry ; see also Wild Raspberry. 
Rattan vine, Berchemia scandens. Some surplus. Honey dark 

amber, April, Texas. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



389 



Red bay, Persea borbonia. Southeastern United States, April- 
June. 
Redbud ; see Judas Tree. 
Red clover ; see White Clover. 
Red-root ; see Morong. 
Rhamnaceae ; see Buckthorn family. 
Rhododendron, Rhododendron spp. Valuable locally, Allegheny 

Mountains. 
Rock brush ; see Eysenhardtia. 
Rockrose, frostweed, Helianthemum spp. Pollen. 
Rockrose family, Cistaceae ; see Rockrose. 
Rocky Mountain bee-plant ; see Cleome. 
Rosaceae ; see Rose ftamily. 

Rose apple, poma rosa, Caryophyllus jambos. Tropical, of value. 
Rose family, Rosacea^ ; see Meadow Sweet, Raspberry, Blackberry, 

Wild Raspberry, Greasewood, 

Strawberry, Roses, Plum and 

Peach. 
Roses, Rosa spp. Pollen only. 
Royal palm, Roystonea spp. Honey 

amber, West Indies. Secretes 

heavily. 
Rubiaceae ; see Madder family. 
Rue family, Rutacese ; see Citrus 

Fruits. 
Rutaceae ; see Rue family. 



Sage brush, Artemisia californica. 
Valuable for pollen, southern 
California. 

Sages, Ramona spp. (Also classified 
as Audibertia spp. and Salvia 
spp.) Plants of California species 
vary in size up to 10 feet. 
April- July. Honey " water- 
white," granulating least quickly 
of any American honeys, flavor 
mild and delicious. The semi- 
arid regions of southern California 
in canons to 5000 feet (Richter). 
The black, ball or button sage, R. stachyoides (Fig. 156), is 
perhaps the most important, although white sage, R. polysta- 
chya (Fig. 157), and purple sage, R. nivea, are valuable. 
These plants require about twenty inches of rainfall in late 
winter followed by warm spring, free from fogs, to produce 




Fig. 156. — Button sage. 



390 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 157. — White sage. 



best results. When at their best these plants equal any other 
species in nectar secretion, but failures in crop are common. 

The sage worm (Platyptilia mar- 
mar ■odactyla) does considerable 
damage to the button sage, de- 
stroying the nectaries, especially in 
cloudy weather. Britton and 
Brown list seven species of Salvia 
for the eastern United States and 
state that there are twenty-five 
other species in the United States. 
Richter lists seven other species as 
California honey-plants. 
St. John's- wort, Hypericum spp. 

Pollen. 
St. John's-wort family, Hypericacese ; 

see St. John's-wort. 
Salicaceae ; see Willow family. 
Saman, algaroba, Pithecolobium Saman. 
West Indies, Central and South America. 
Saw palmetto, Sabal megacarpa. To 7 feet, May, honey amber, 

thick. Florida. 
Scrophulariaceae ; see Figwort family. 
Sedge family, Cyperacese ; see Tule. 
Senna family, Csesalpinaceae ; see 
Judas Tree, Partridge Pea, Honey 
Locust, Eysenhardtia, Paloverde 
and Logwood. 
Service berry ; see Juneberry. 
Sida spp. Tropical, listed for Hawaii. 
Simarubaceae ; see Ailanthus family. 
Simpson's honey-plant, Scrophularia 
vernalis. This common name is 
used only among American 
beekeepers. The species is native 
of southern Europe and was 
formerly cultivated for bees in 
parts of the United States, but 
without profit. Nectar abun- 
dant. Other species of Scro- 
phularia are good honey-plants. 
Smartweed ; see Heartsease. 
Solanaceae ; see Potato family. 
Sorghum, Holcus halepensis. Pollen. 
Sorrel-tree ; see Sourwood. 




The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 391 

Sour clover ; see White Clover. 

Sour gum ; see Tupelo. 

Sourwood, sorrel- tree, Oxydendrum arboreum (Fig. 158). Tree to 
60 feet, flowers white in numerous racemes, June- July. Honey 
light in color, granulates slowly. In dry woods, Pennsylvania 
to Florida, especially in Piedmont region and lower mountains. 
An exceptionally heavy yielder, little affected by changes in 
climatic conditions, nor is nectar washed out by rains. 

Sow thistle, Sonchus oleraceus. Some nectar. 

Spanish needle, Bidens spp., Coreopsis spp. The numerous species 
of these genera are variously adapted to all conditions of soil 
and moisture, but the swamp species are most important to the 
beekeeper. Annual or perennial herbs to several feet, ray 
flowers yellow. Autumn. Honey amber, body heavy, flavor 
somewhat pronounced, granulates slowly. Bidens involucrata, 
native of middle west, is abundant (introduced) in the Dela- 
ware River bottoms south of Philadelphia, where it yields 
excessively. B. aristosa is the species reported as so valuable 
in the Illinois and Mississippi River bottoms. The Kankakee 
Swamps (northern Indiana and Illinois) contain Spanish 
needle in abundance. There seems to be considerable confu- 
sion as to the identification of the various species, and a careful 
study should be made of these valuable fall flowers. 
The common name Spanish needle is the one usually adopted by 
beekeepers. Tickseed, sunflower, beggar's tick and bur- 
marigold are also applied to various species. 

Spanish trefoil ; see Alfalfa. 

Spider-flower ; see Cleome. 

Spikeweed, Centromadia pungens. Central California, formerly a 
leading source of honey, now being superseded by other plants. 

Squash ; see Gourd family. 

Strawberry, Fragaria sp. Nectar in some localities. 

Sumac, Rhus glabra. Shrub to 20 feet, flowers yellowish green in 
dense conical panicles. June-August. Honey amber of fine 
flavor when well ripened. Distributed widely in moist regions 
of United States, yielding a surplus in New England. There 
are several species of Rhus of value to the beekeeper. Poison 
ivy, R. radicans, yields nectar. 

Sumac family, Anacardiacese ; see Sumac, Pepper Tree and Hog 
Plum. 

Sunflower, Helianthus spp. Nectar often abundant. Jerusalem 
artichoke, H. tuberosus, cultivated for edible tubers is of value 
in moist soil. H. annuus, common in West. 

Sunflower ; see also Spanish Needle. 

Swamp mahogany gum ; see Eucalyptus. 



392 



Beekeeping 



Swedish clover; see Alsike Clover. 

Sweet clover, Melilotus alba (Fig. 159), M. officinalis, M. indica. 
Biennial herbs (M. indica, annual), 3-10 feet. Flowers white 
in M. alba and yellow in other two species, in slender racemes. 

June-September, or even 
later, usually in July. 
Honey slightly green in color, 
flavor described as like cin- 
namon. Throughout United 
States, usually in waste 
places but becoming more 
common as a forage plant. 
Secretes nectar wherever 
grown. Native of old world. 
In some sections (Kentucky, 
Utah) this plant is valued 
as a soil renovator (see 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 485, 
U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture). White sweet clo- 
ver, M. alba (Fig. 159), is the 
most common species. Seed 
is now offered for sale annu- 
ally in the bee journals. It 
has been sown extensively 
by beekeepers in waste places 
and along embankments. 
Called also Bokhara clover 
and has numerous other common names. Twenty species, all 
native of old world. M. indica more abundant in far west. 
Sweet-gale, bayberry, Myrica spp. Wind pollinated, some pollen. 
Sweet gum, Liquidambar Styraciflua. A source of abundant prop- 
olis. 
Sweet pepper bush, Clethra alnifolia. Shrub, 3-10 feet. Honey 
light amber, good body. In swampy woods, Maine to Florida, 
especially near coast, July-August. Of special value in New 
England and New Jersey. 

Tartarian honeysuckle, Lonicera tatarica. Nectar, important 
locally, other species valuable in which flowers are not too long 
for bees to reach. Bumble-bees sometimes pierce tubes of 
the honeysuckle, L. Periclymenum, to obtain nectar, after 
which honeybees work on the pierced flowers. 

Thistle, Carduus spp. Considerable nectar. 

Thistle family, Composite ; see Iron-weed, Boneset, Goldenrod, 




Fig. 159. — Sweet clover. 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



393 



Asters, Sunflower, Spanish Needle, Sage Brush, Fireweed, 
Thistle, Canada Thistle and Spikeweed. This is a most 
important family from the standpoint of the beekeeper. 

Thoroughwort ; see Boneset. 

Tickseed ; see Spanish Needle. 

Tiliaceae ; see Linden family. 

Ti-ti, leatherwood, iron-wood, Cyrilla racemiflora. Evergreen shrub 
to 35 feet, flowers small, white in narrow racemes. May- 
July, February-March in Florida. Honey red, flavor strong, 
good only for baking. Virginia to Florida to Texas, of value 
chiefly in Georgia and Florida. Not a reliable source, as the 
nectar is washed out by rains, which are frequent during 
blooming period in Florida. Precedes tupelo in Appalachicola 
region. Black ti-ti, Cliftonia sp., blooms later and is more 
reliable. 

Tobacco, Nicotina Tabacum. Nectar locally, especially in Con- 
necticut, honey fair. 

Tree of heaven ; see Ailanthus. 

Trumpet-creeper family, Bignoniacese ; see Catalpa and Desert 
Willow. 

Tule, Seirpus sp. 
Reported as a 
hone y-p 1 a n t 
from interior 
valleys of Cal- 
ifornia ; proba- 
bly incorrect. 

Tulip or yellow 
poplar, poplar, 
white wood, 
cucumber tree, 
tulip tree, Li- 
riodendron Tu- 
lipifera (Fig. 
160). Tree to 
175 feet, flow- 
ers 2 inches 
wide, resem- 
bling tulips, 
greenish yel- 
low, orange 

inside. May-June. Honey dark amber, of pronounced 
flavor. In woods, eastern half of United States. Especially 
abundant in Ohio Valley and southern Appalachian moun- 
tains. An unusually heavy and reliable yielder. 




Fig. 160. — Tulip poplar. 



394 



Beekeeping 



Tulip tree ; see Tulip Poplar. 

Tupelo, sour gum, Nyssa spp. Trees to 100 feet, leaves oval or 
acute or slightly toothed (N. aquatica). April- June. Honey 
of fine quality, light amber, rarely granulating, flavor mild 
but characteristic. Swamps of eastern United States, west to 
Missouri and Texas, especially abundant in Florida, Alabama 
and Georgia. The honey from tupelos is of especial value in 
blending extracted-honeys for table trade because of its slow- 
ness in granulating. There are four species of Nyssa of value 
to the beekeeper. Tupelo, N. aquatica, is found abundantly 
in southern swamps, especially along the Appalachicola River. 
Secretes so abundantly that it will support thousands of 
colonies. Sour gum, N. sylvatica, is found farther north and 
with N. biflora furnishes abundant nectar. In abundance of 
nectar these trees equal the basswood. 

Ulmaceae ; see Elm family. 
Umbelliferae ; see Carrot family. 



Vacciniaceae ; see Huckleberry family. 

Verbenacese ; see Vervain family. 

Vervain family, Verbenacese ; see Carpet Grass, Lantana and 
Black Mangrove. 

Vetches, Vicia spp. Nectar, 

pollen. 
Viper's bugloss, blueweed, 
blue-thistle, Echium vul- 
gare. Biennial herbs, 
1-2^ feet, stem erect 
bearing numerous blue 
to purple flowers, stem 
hairy, July-September 
and later. In fields and 
waste land, native of 
Europe, especially abun- 
dant in Virginia, Mary- 
land and Pennsylvania. 
The common name blue- 
thistle is the one by 
which beekeepers usu- 
ally know this plant. 
An important source in 
the Shenandoah Valley, 
creeper, Parthenocissus quinquefolia. Nectar, pollen. 
see Grape family. 




White clover. 



Virginia 
Vitaceae 



The Sources of Nectar and Pollen 



395 



Walnut family, Juglandacese ; see Black Walnut, English Walnut, 
Hickory and Pecan. 

Water-leaf family, Hydrophyllacese ; see Phacelia. 

Watermelon ; see Gourd family. 

Wattles ; see Acacias. 

White alder family, Clethraceae ; see Sweet Pepper Bush. 

White clover, Trifolium repens (Fig. 161). Perennial, creeping 
branches often taking root at nodes. Blooms from May on, 
but especially in June-July, when it is especially valuable. 
Honey light in color, granulates slowly, flavor superb. In 
pasture lands and waste places in moist regions of United 
States and Canada. Valuable as honey source chiefly in North 
and East. Not cultivated, thrives in limestone regions. 
Native of Europe and introduced into United States. One of 
the most important sources. Maybe considered as a " stand- 
ard " for comb-honey, being equaled by no other source for 
this type of honey. Nectar- 
secretion quickly affected by ad- 
verse weather conditions. Honey 
often mixed with basswood in 
Michigan, Wisconsin and adjoin- 
ing States. Also called Dutch 
clover, under which name seed is 
often sold. Other species of Tri- 
folium are also valuable, e.g. sour 
clover, T. fucatum, California. 
Red clover, T. pratense, usually 
has a corolla tube too long for the 
honeybee to reach the nectar. At 
times bees get considerable nectar 
from this source. See also Crim- 
son Clover and Alsike Clover. 

White ironwood; see Eucalyptus. 

White lilac and others, Ceanothus spp. 
California, February-May. Nec- 
tar and abundant pollen. 

White sage ; see Sage. 

Whitewood ; see Basswood and also 
Tulip Poplar. 

Wild alfalfa, Lotus glaber. June-Sep- 
tember, California. 

Wild bergamot ; see Horsemint. 

Wild buckwheat, Eriogonum fasciculatum. Honey light amber, 
granulates quickly. April-November, southern California. 

Wild honeysuckle ; see Azalea. 




Fig. 162. 



Willow-herb. 



396 Beekeeping 

Wild raspberry, Rubus strigosus. Shrubs, 3-6 feet, stems with 
small prickles. May-July or later. Honey white, flavor 
unsurpassed by that of any other honey. In dry lands, Canada 
south in mountains to North Carolina and in west to New 
Mexico, to 5500 feet in North Carolina. Especially valuable 
in cut or burned over lands in northern Michigan and noted 
in parts of New York. This is said to be the original of the 
Cuthbert red raspberry so widely cultivated. Reliable where 
abundant. 

Willow family, Salicaceas ; see Poplars and Willows. 

Willow-herb, fireweed, Chamcenerion angustifolium (Fig. 162). 
Perennial herbs, 2-8 feet, flowers pink to purple (rarely white), 
in spike-like racemes. Honey white, flavor excellent, not 
pronounced. In dry soil, especially in burned-over forest 
lands. Labrador south to North Carolina, Kansas and 
California, but especially in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Canada and Washington. This species continues in bloom 
from July to frost, the flowers maturing in series upward on 
the stem. A heavy reliable yielder. 

Willows, Salix spp. Extraordinary value for pollen, some nectar. 
Early spring. 

Witchhazel family, Hamamelidacea3 ; see Sweet Gum. 

Yellow poplar ; see Tulip Poplar. 

Yucca, Hesperoyucca Whipplei. Semi-desert, California. 



CHAPTER XXII 
BEE DISEASES AND ENEMIES 

The honeybee is subject to several diseases which are at 
times a serious handicap to the industry. Several years ago 
these diseases were working insidiously, destroying the 
industry in some localities and constituting a serious handi- 
cap elsewhere. The recent agitation on this subject has, 
however, brought about a wider knowledge of these diseases 
and they are losing their destructiveness just so fast as the 
beekeepers learn how to recognize them and how to treat 
diseased colonies. 

The diseases of bees may be divided into two classes, those 
affecting the brood and those to which the adult bees are 
subject. The diseases of the brood are the more destructive 
and more is known concerning their causes, distribution, 
symptoms and treatment. 

BROOD DISEASES 

There are three recognized diseases of the brood, known as 
American foul brood, European foul brood and sacbrood or 

Note. Various phases of the investigation of the brood diseases 
are reported in publications of the United States Department of 
Agriculture to which the reader is referred for additional informa- 
tion. These publications deal with the symptoms, treatment, 
geographical distribution and causes of the diseases as well as the 
control measures provided by various States in the form of apiary 
inspection. The present discussion of brood diseases is largely 
drawn from the author's bulletin " The Treatment of Bee Diseases," 
Farmers' Bulletin 442, since it seems useless to attempt a rear- 
rangement of the material in this bulletin. 

397 



398 



Beekeeping 



pickled brood. These diseases weaken colonies by reducing 
the number of emerging bees needed to replace the adult bees 
which die from natural causes. The adult bees are not known 
to be affected. The larvae dead of these diseases show cer- 
tain differences in appearance which are useful in determin- 
ing which disease is present. These diseases are entirely 
distinct, as shown by these differences in appearance, by 
differences in response to treatment, by differences in 
the age of the larvae affected and by bacteriological ex- 
amination. There is no evidence that chilled or starved 

brood develops 
into an infectious 
disease or that 
dead brood favors 
the development 
of an infectious 
disease. 





Fig. 163. — American foul brood: a, b, f, normal sealed cells; c,j, sunken 
cappings, showing perforation ; g, sunken capping not perforated ; h, I, 
m, n, q, r, larvae affected by disease ; e, i, p, s, scales formed from dried- 
down larvse ; d, o, pupse affected by disease. Twice natural size. 



American foul brood. 

This disease (Fig. 163) is frequently called simply "foul 
brood." It usually shows itself in the larvae just about the 
time that they fill the cells and after they have ceased feed- 
ing and have begun pupation. At this time the larva is 
sealed over in the comb (Fig. 163, a, b, /) . The first outward 
indication of the infection is a slight brownish discoloration 
and the loss of the well-rounded appearance of the normal 
larva (Fig. 163, I). The larva gradually sinks down in the 
cell and becomes darker in color (Fig. 163, h, m) and the 
posterior end lies against the bottom of the cell. Frequently 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



399 



the segmentation of the larva is clearly marked. By the 
time it has partially dried down and has become quite dark 
brown (coffee colored) the most typical characteristic of this 
disease manifests itself. 
If a match stick or 
tooth-pick is inserted 
into the decaying mass 
and withdrawn, the 
larval remains adhere to 
it and are drawn out 
in a thread (Fig. 164), 
which sometimes ex- 
tends for several inches before breaking. This ropi- 
ness is the chief characteristic used by the beekeeper in di- 
agnosing this disease. The larva continues to dry down 




Fig. 164. 



The ropiness of 
foul brood. 



American 




Fig. 165. — American foul brood comb, showing irregular patches of sunken 
cappings and scales. The position of the comb indicates the best way 
to view the scales. 



and gradually loses its ropiness until it finally becomes merely 
a scale on the lower side wall and base of the cell (Fig. 163, e, 
p, s). The scale formed by the dried-down larva adheres 
tightly to the cell and can be removed with difficulty from 



400 



Beekeeping 



the cell wall. The scales can best be observed when the 
comb is held with the top inclined toward the observer so 
that a bright light strikes the lower side wall (Fig. 165). A 
characteristic and usually penetrating odor is often notice- 
able in the decaying larvae. This can best be likened to the 
odor of heated glue. 

The larger part of the larvae which die of this disease are 
attacked after being sealed in the cells. The cappings are 







Fig. 166. — Apiary in southern California which was practically destroyed 
by disease. When this apiary was visited by the author in 1908, only 
15 colonies were seemingly free from American foul brood in the 
151 hives. After treatment only 14 colonies were saved. This devas- 
tation had occurred in two seasons. 



often entirely removed by the bees, but when they are left 
they usually become sunken (Fig. 163, g, c, j) and frequently 
perforated (Fig. 163, c, j). As the healthy brood emerges 
the comb shows the scattered sunken cappings covering dead 
larvae (Fig. 165), giving it a characteristic appearance. 
Pupae also may die of this disease, in which case they too dry 
down (Fig. 163, o, d), become ropy and have the character- 
istic odor and color. The tongue frequently adheres to the 
upper side wall and often remains there even after the pupa 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



401 



has dried down to a scale. Younger unsealed larvae are 
sometimes affected. Usually the disease attacks only worker 
brood, but occasional cases are found in which queen and 
drone brood are diseased. It is not certain that race of bees, 
season, or climate have any effect on the virulence of this 
disease, except that in warmer climates, where the breeding 
season is prolonged, the rapidit}^ of devastation (Fig. 166) is 
more marked. Cause, Bacillus larvce. 

European foal brood. 

This disease (Fig. 167) was formerly called " black brood." 

It usually attacks the larva at an earlier stage of its develop- 
ment than American 
foul brood and while it 
is still curled up at the 
base of the cell (Fig. 
167, r). A small per- 
centage of larvae dies 





Fig. 167. — European foul brood : a, j, k, normal sealed cells; b, c, d, e, g, 
i, I, m, p, q, larvae affected by disease ; r, normal larva at age attacked 
by disease ; /, h, n, o, dried-down larvae or scales. Twice natural size. 

after capping, but sometimes quite young larvae are at- 
tacked (Fig. 167, e, m). Sunken and perforated cappings 
are sometimes observed just as in American foul brood 
(Fig. 163, c, g, j). The earliest indication of the disease is a 
slight yellow or gray discoloration and uneasy movement of 
the larva in the cell. The larva loses its well-rounded, opaque 
appearance and becomes slightly translucent, so that the 
tracheae may become prominent (Fig. 167, b), giving the 
larvae a clearly segmented appearance. The larva is usually 
flattened against the base of the cell but may turn so that the 
ends of the larva are to the rear of the cell (Fig. 167, p) or 
2d 



402 Beekeeping 

may fall away from the base (Fig. 167, e, g, I). Later the 
color changes to a decided yellow or gray and the translu- 
cency is lost (Fig. 167, q, h). The yellow color may be taken 
as the chief characteristic of this disease. The dead larva 
appears as a moist, somewhat collapsed mass, giving the 
appearance of being melted. When the remains have become 
almost dry (Fig. 167, c) the tracheae sometimes become con- 
spicuous again, this time by retaining their shape, while the 
rest of the body content dries around them. Finally all 
that is left of the larva is a grayish-brown scale against the 
base of the cell (Fig. 167, /, h) or a shapeless mass on the 
lower side wall if the larva did not retain its normal position 
(Fig. 167, n, o). Very few scales are black. The scales are 
not adhesive but are easily removed and the bees carry out 
a great many in their efforts to clean house. 

Decaying larvae which have died of this disease are usually 
not ropy as in American foul brood but a slight ropiness is 
sometimes observed. There is usually little odor in Eu- 
ropean foul brood, but sometimes in bad cases a sour odor is 
present, which reminds one of yeast fermentation. This 
disease attacks drone and queen larvae almost as quickly as 
those of the workers. 

European foul brood is more destructive during the spring 
and early summer than at other times, often entirely disap- 
pearing during late summer and autumn or during a heavy 
honey-flow. Italian bees seem to be better able to resist 
the ravages of this disease than any other race. The disease 
at times spreads with startling rapidity and is most destruc- 
tive. Where it is prevalent a considerably larger percentage 
of colonies is affected than is usual for American foul brood. 
This disease is variable in its symptoms and other manifes- 
tations and is often a puzzle to the beekeeper. Cause, 
Bacillus pluton. 

Sacbrood or pickled brood. 

In this disease the larva dies about the time of sealing. 
It usually lies on its back with the head turned upward. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 403 

The color varies, but is frequently light yellow or brown 
and the head is often almost black. The body is swollen 
and the contents watery and the head may be quite hard. 
There is no ropiness. This disease is usually not the cause 
of any serious loss in the apiary and as a rule no treatment 
is necessary. The most serious aspect of this disease is 
that it is often mistaken for European foul brood or American 
foul brood and the colony is treated accordingly. The 
cause is a filterable virus. 

Methods of spread. 

Since all three of these diseases are infectious they are 
spread in much the same way. It has long been recognized 
that it is unsafe to feed honey from a diseased colony and 
probably most cases are due to the carrying of the virus in 
honey, as in robbing or feeding. It is well, therefore, to prac- 
tice the following precautionary measures : 

(1) Do not allow weak colonies to be robbed out. 

(2) Never feed honey purchased on the open market. 

(3) If possible keep all honey from diseased apiaries out 
of the neighborhood. 

(4) In introducing purchased queens, transfer them to 
clean cages and destroy the old cage, candy and accompany- 
ing workers. 

(5) Colonies of bees should never be purchased unless it 
is certain that they are free from disease. 

(6) The purchase of old combs and second-hand supplies 
is dangerous unless it is certain that they come from healthy 
apiaries. 

Treatment. 

The treatment of an infectious bee disease consists pri- 
marily in the elimination or removal of the cause of the 
disease. In treating a disease, therefore, the aim of the 
manipulation is to remove or destroy all the virus causing 
the disease. It should be remembered that the effort is 
not to save the larvae that are already dead or dying but to 



404 Beekeeping 

stop the further devastation of the disease by removing all 
material capable of transmitting the cause of the trouble. 
In all of the operations great pains should be taken not to 
spread the disease through carelessness. After handling a 
diseased colony, the hands of the operator should be washed 
with water to remove any honey that may be on them. It 
does not pay to treat colonies that are considerably weakened 
by disease. In case there are several such colonies they 
should be united to form strong, vigorous colonies before or 
during treatment. 

Shaking treatment. 

The treatment consists essentially in the removal of all in- 
fected material from the colony and in compelling the colony 
to take a fresh start by building new combs and by gather- 
ing fresh stores. This is done by shaking the adult bees 
from the old combs into a clean hive on clean frames. 

The shaking treatment should be given during a flow of 
honey, so that other bees in the apiary will not be inclined 
to rob. If this is not possible the operation may be performed 
under a tent made of mosquito netting or a wire-cloth cage. 
The best time is during the middle of a clear day when a large 
number of bees are in the field. 

All implements that will be needed, such as queen and 
drone trap, hive tool and lighted smoker, should be in 
readiness before the operation is begun. A complete clean 
hive with frames is provided, as well as a tightly closed hive- 
body in which to put the contaminated combs after shaking. 
An extra hive cover or some similar apparatus should be 
provided to serve as a runway for the bees as they enter 
the new hive. The new frames should contain strips of 
comb-foundation from one-fourth to one inch wide. Full 
sheets are not desirable and if combs built on full sheets of 
foundation are desired they may be built later. 

The old hive containing the diseased colony (Fig. 168, A) 
is now lifted to one side out of the flight of returning field 
bees and the clean hive (B) set exactly in its place. The cover 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



405 



(G) is now taken off and a few frames (E) removed from the 
center of the hive. If unspaced frames are used, those remain- 
ing in the hive should be pushed tightly to either side of the 
hive, thus making a barrier beyond which the bees cannot 
crawl as they move to the top of the hive after shaking. This 
largely prevents them from getting on the outside of the 
hive. If self-spacing frames are used, a couple of thin boards 
laid on the top-bars on either side will accomplish the same 
result. The runway (D) is put in place in front of the en- 
trance. The old hive is now opened for the first time. The 
frames are removed one at a time, lowered part way into the 




Fig. 168. — Apparatus for the shaking treatment: A, hive containing 
diseased colony (formerly in position of B) ; B, clean hive ; C, empty 
hive to receive combs after shaking ; D, hive cover used as runway ; 
E, frames removed from B to give room for shaking ; F, queen and 
drone trap ; G, cover for clean hive, B. 



new hive and, with a quick downward shake, the bees are 
dislodged. The frames are then put into the extra hive-body 
(C) and immediately covered to prevent robbing. After 
all the frames are shaken the bees remaining on the sides of 
the old hive (A) are shaken out. 

If honey is coming in freely, so that thin honey is shaken 
out of the combs, cover the runway (D) with newspapers 
and shake the bees in front of the new hive (B), leaving all 
frames in place and the cover on. After the operation the 
soiled newspapers should be destroyed. In shaking in front 
of the entrance the first one or two frames should be so shaken 
that the bees are thrown against the entrance, where they can 



406 



Beekeeping 



locate the hive quickly. They then fan their wings and the 
others follow them into the hive. If this is not done the bees 
may wander about and get under the hive or in some other 
undesirable place. 

After the bees are mostly in the new hive a queen and 
drone trap (F) or a strip of perforated zinc is placed over 
the entrance to prevent the colony from deserting the hive. 
The old combs are now quickly removed. If several 
colonies are being treated at one time it may pay to stack 
several hive-bodies containing contaminated combs over a 
weak diseased colony to allow most of the healthy brood to 
emerge, thereby strengthening the weak colony. After ten 
or twelve days this colony is treated 
in turn and all the combs are rendered 
into wax. 

An apiary of any size should have 
included in its equipment a wax press 
(p. 335) for removing wax from old 
combs . After the contaminated frames 
are taken to the honey-house the combs 
should be kept carefully covered, so 
that no bees can reach them until the 
wax can be rendered. This should 
not be delayed very long or the 
combs may be ruined by wax-moths. 
The slumgum or refuse remaining after the wax is re- 
moved should be burned as it is usually not sterilized in 
the rendering of the wax. Contaminated combs should 
not be put into a solar wax extractor for fear of spreading 
the disease. The wax from contaminated combs may safely 
be used in the manufacture of comb-foundation. 

The hive which has contained the diseased colony should 
be thoroughly cleaned of all wax and honey, and it is desirable 
that it be carefully disinfected by burning out the inside with 
a gasoline blue-flame torch (Fig. 169). If this piece of ap- 
paratus is not available, several hive-bodies may be piled 
together on a hive bottom and some gasoline or kerosene 




Fig. 169. — Gasoline torch. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 407 

poured on the sides and on some straw or excelsior placed 
at the bottom of the pile. This is then ignited and after 
burning for a few seconds a close-fitting hive cover is placed 
on top of the pile to extinguish the names. The inside of 
the hive-bodies should be charred to a light brown. The 
careful cleaning and disinfection of frames always costs con- 
siderably more in labor than new frames would cost, but these 
also may be carefully cleaned and used again. Frames may 
be cleaned by boiling in water for about half an hour, but 
this frequently causes them to warp badly. The disinfection 
of hives and frames with chemicals is not recommended. 

If there is a considerable quantity of honey in the con- 
taminated combs it may be extracted. This honey is not 
safe to feed to bees without boiling, but it is absolutely safe 
for human consumption. If there is a comparatively small 
quantity it may be consumed in the beekeeper's family, 
care being taken that none of it is placed so that the bees 
can ever get it. 

To put such honey on the market is contrary to law in 
some states. There is always danger that an emptied re- 
ceptacle will be thrown out where bees can have access to it, 
thus causing a new outbreak of disease. It can be safely 
used for feeding to bees in summer, provided it is diluted 
with at least an equal volume of water to prevent burning 
and boiled in a closed vessel for not less than one-half hour, 
counting from the time that the diluted honey first boils 
vigorously. The honey will not be sterilized if it is heated 
in a vessel set inside of another containing water. Boiled 
honey should not be sold as honey. It is good only as a 
food for bees and even then should never be used for winter 
stores, as it would probably cause dysentery. 

Some beekeepers prefer to shake the bees first on to frames 
containing strips of foundation as above described and in 
four days to shake the colony a second time on to full sheets 
of foundation, destroying all comb built after the first treat- 
ment. This insures better combs than the use of strips of 
foundation, but it is a severe drain on the strength of the 



408 Beekeeping 

colony. Since it is desirable to have combs built on full 
sheets, the best policy is to replace any irregular combs with 
full sheets of foundation .or good combs later in the season. 
If the treatment just described is given at the beginning 
of a good honey-flow, it is practically equivalent to artificial 
swarming (p. 283) and may result in an actual increase in 
the surplus honey, especially in the case of comb-honey 
production. The wax rendered from the combs will sell 
for enough to pay for the foundation used if full sheets of 
foundation are employed. If treatment must be given at 
some other time, so that the colony must be fed, the cost is 
materially increased. In feeding, it is best to use sugar syrup 
or honey that is known to have come from healthy colonies. 

Fall treatment. 

If it is necessary to treat a colony so late in the fall that it 
would be impossible for the bees to prepare for winter without 
assistance, the treatment may be modified by shaking the 
bees on to combs entirely full of honey so that there is no place 
for any brood to be reared. This will usually be satisfactory 
only after brood-rearing has entirely ceased. Unless a colony 
is quite strong it does not pay to treat in the fall, but it should 
be destroyed or united with another colony. In case a 
diseased colony dies outdoors in the winter, there is danger 
that other bees may have opportunity to rob the hive before 
the beekeeper can close the entrance. In case bees are 
wintered in the cellar it is more advisable to risk wintering 
before treatment, for if the colony does die the hive will not 
be robbed. 

Additional treatment for European foul brood. 

Since, as stated previously, Italian bees seem to be better 
able to withstand European foul brood than are other races, 
it is recommended that apiaries in regions where this disease is 
prevalent be requeened with young, vigorous Italian queens 
of good stock. This should be done whether or not the 
shaking treatment is given. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 409 

It has been found that the removal of the queen and the 
keeping of the colony queenless for a period often results 
in the disappearance of European foul brood. E. W. 
Alexander, who advocated this method, 1 recommended that 
the colony be kept queenless (by cutting out all queen cells 
at the end of nine days) for a period of twenty days, at 
which time a cell containing a queen of Italian stock ready to 
emerge is to be given to the colony. The young queen 
will thus begin to lay in about twenty-seven days after 
the old queen has been removed, or in at least three days 
after the last of the drone brood has emerged. Other 
writers have advocated a shorter time. 

The dequeening treatment is not always successful and it 
is therefore recommended that care be exercised in trying 
it. Since there is a considerable percentage of successful 
results, this would indicate that there is an important 
principle involved. It should not be forgotten, however, 
that European foul brood often disappears in the late 
summer of its own accord if the case is not severe, and it 
is probable that in many of the cases of dequeening re- 
ported as successful the disease would have disappeared 
without the treatment. This treatment is suggested only 
for the experienced beekeeper. 

DISEASES OF ADULT BEES 

These diseases are but imperfectly known and there is 
much need of further investigation. In view of this condi- 
tion it is virtually impossible to give much help in treatment. 

Dysentery. 

This condition is one which is manifest chiefly in late 
winter and is caused by improper food. It is therefore dis- 
cussed in the chapter on wintering. 

1 Alexander, E. W. f 1905. How to rid your apiary of black brood. 
Gleanings in bee culture, XXXIII, pp. 1125-1127. 



410 Beekeeping 

Nosema disease. 

In 1909 Zander 1 showed that a protozoon, named by him 
Nosema apis, is found abundantly in the mid-intestine 
of adult bees and he associated this organism in a causal 
relationship with the death of many thousands of colonies 
annually. Since this announcement other investigators 
have taken up work on this organism. It has been deter- 
mined that heating the organism to 57° C. (134.6° F.) for 
ten minutes kills it. In England it is now claimed 2 that 
this organism is the cause of the so-called Isle of Wight 
disease or Microsporidiosus which is reported to have deci- 
mated the bees on that island and to have caused heavy 
losses in England. Numerous facts concerning this organism 
have been brought out, especially notable being the wide 
geographical distribution of the parasite. In spite of the 
work done by the various investigators there is a paucity of 
authentically proven facts which leaves much to be desired. 
No treatment has been suggested in England except destruc- 
tion of the colony to prevent the spread of the disease. 
American beekeepers will do well to await reliable investiga- 
tion before following such advice. 

Paralysis. 

Under this name beekeepers seemingly place practically 
all the diseases of adult bees which they observe. Symptoms 
attributed to paralysis are also given for poisoning and the 
more one reads of the symptoms and treatments suggested, 
the more hopeless it appears when one is asked to recommend 
treatment. Until more is known it is unsafe to give advice. 

Spring dwindling. 

This name has also apparently been given to various 
conditions. To avoid confusion it should be applied only 

1 Zander, Enoch, 1909. Tierische Parasiten als Krankheitserreger bei der 
Biene. Miinchen. 

2 Graham-Smith and others, 1912. Report on the Isle of Wight bee 
disease. Supplement Jr. Board of Agric, XIX, No. 2, 143 pp. 

, 1913, ibid., 47 pp. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



411 



to the loss of bees in the spring due to the fact that the 
adults have been weakened by poor wintering and die faster 
than they can be replaced by emerging brood. This is 
therefore discussed in the chapter on wintering. 




Fig. 170. 



ENEMIES OF BEES 

Most books on beekeeping devote considerable attention 
to the enemies of bees, of which there are several. Since they 
are relatively unimpor- 
tant, however, the dis- 
cussion will here be con- 
fined to the two species of 
wax-moth. These do no 
damage to strong healthy 
colonies of bees properly 
cared for, and if seen in 
the hive they indicate weakness. This weakness may be 
due to queenlessness or lack of stores, but the most common 
cause is probably a brood disease. Beekeepers frequently 
attribute the loss from disease to some other cause and wax- 
moths are most frequently blamed for the losses observed. 

The wax-moth (Galleria mellonella). 

The larvse of this moth (Figs. 170, 171 and 172) destroy 
combs by burrowing through them, constructing tunnels of silk 



Wax-moth in natural posi- 
tion at rest. 




Fig. 171. — Wax-moth, male. Enlarged. 



412 



Beekeeping 




Fig. 172. — Wax-moth, female. Enlarged. 



as they go (Fig. 173). These tunnels are spotted with excreta. 
The larvse (Fig. 174) feed on pollen, cocoons and other mate- 
rials in the combs. The eggs 
are laid in crevices in the hive 
or in any narrow space (Fig. 
175) and seemingly in most lo- 
calities there are probably few 
hives that do not harbor some 





Fig. 174. — Larva of wax -moth. 



Fig. 175. — Eggs of wax-moth 
laid on top-bar of frame. 



eggs. If combs are removed from the bees and sealed up, 
it will frequently be found that they become riddled by 




Fig. 173. — Work of wax-moth larvae on comb. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



413 



the tunnels of these larvae, presumably developed from eggs 
already present on the combs or frames. After feeding, the 
larva? pupate, first spinning 
silken webs around them- 
selves. Previous to pupa- 
tion (Figs. 176 and 177) 
they sometimes burrow a 
little way into the hive 
wall, this being specially 
noticeable in the redwood 
hives in the West. The life 
history of this moth has 
recently been described by 
Paddock. 1 Although re- 
peatedly introduced, the 
wax-moth is not found in Colorado. Except for special 
regions, as the one just mentioned, this moth is found 
wherever bees are kept and is also destructive to the combs 
of the giant bee (Apis dorsata). The female moths can 





Fig. 176. — Pupa of wax-moth. 




Fig. 177. — Cocoons of wax-moth. 



1 Paddock, F. B., 1913. The life history and control of the bee-moth or 
wax-moth. In Bulletin 158 "Investigations pertaining to Texas beekeep- 
ing." Texas Agric. Exp. Station. 



414 



Beekeeping 




often be seen flying in the 
apiary in early evening and 
attempting to enter the 
hives. 

The lesser wax-moth (Achroia 
grissella). 

This moth (Figs. 178, 179, 
180, 181 and 182) is less 
widely distributed in the 
United States than the pre- 
vious species. The larvae 

Fig. 178. — Lesser wax-moth in nat- tunnel through combs in 

ural position. much the same way as those 

of the larger species. The eggs are laid singly on the 
side wall of cells. 

Remedies. 

To destroy the moth 
larvae and pupae in 
combs not in use, place 
them in hives tiered 
one above the other 
and on top place an 
empty hive or super. On the top-bars of the upper- 
most frames place a saucer into which pour bisulfid of 
carbon. The gas caused by the evaporation of the liquid 




Fig. 179. — Lesser wax-moth, male. 




Fig. 180. — Lesser wax-moth, female. 



Bee Diseases and Enemies 



415 



is heavier than air and settles down through the combs. 

Care should be exercised not to allow the fumes to reach a 

flame, as the gas is 
highly inflammable. 
The eggs of the wax- 
moth are usually not 
destroyed by fumiga- 
tion, so the operation 
should be repeated at 
intervals of two or 

Fig. 181. — Lesser wax-moth, larva. three Weeks until all 

the eggs have hatched. Sulphur fumes may also be used. 




Other enemies. 

Among other animals which may be mentioned as enemies 
of bees there are several that are parasitic or predaceous, 
or which destroy the 
combs. Toads, vari- 





Fig. 182. 



Lesser wax-moth, 
pupa. 



Fig. 183. — Hive stand to keep off ants. 
The band around the post is tree 
tanglefoot. 



ous species of birds, mice, rats and other small mammals 
(especially in winter), certain spiders and mites, dragon- 



416 Beekeeping 

flies (especially in Florida where they destroy queens 
while mating), various Hemiptera which suck the blood 
of adult bees, the death's head moth (repeatedly men- 
tioned in Europe), Mediterranean flour moth (eating pollen 
in stored combs), a dipterous parasite {Br aula cceca) some- 
times found on imported queens, blister beetle (Melee) 
and other beetles feeding on pollen or combs, wasps and 
hornets (Vespa) and ants, especially in tropics and semi- 
tropics, are the chief offenders. Dragonflies are so destructive 
to queens as to make queen-rearing unprofitable in some 
places. Various devices have been suggested for circumvent- 
ing ants, among which is the hive stand shown in Fig. 183, 
used in Hawaii. Around the post which serves as a base, 
a strip of tree tanglefoot is painted and this is renewed at 
intervals. The bee louse seemingly does not thrive in Amer- 
ica. There are several plants which trap bees and destroy 
them and, as mentioned under honey plants, the pollen 
masses of certain milkweeds adhere to bees, sometimes mak- 
ing them incapable of flight. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE REARING OF QUEENS 

Unless the queen at the head of a colony is a good one 
it is useless to expect that colony to be productive. It 
therefore becomes necessary for the progressive beekeeper 
to pay considerable attention to the rearing of queens which 
fulfill the requirements for commercial success. The chief 
requirements are prolificness, vigor of offspring and purity 
of race. While ability in egg-laying is a character which is 
inherited, it is also influenced by the age of the queen and by 
the care she received during her development. Quietness 
in winter, reduction in swarming and gentleness are other 
desirable characters. 

Commerical queen-rearing. 

Queen-rearing has become a prominent specialty in 
American beekeeping and there are numerous beekeepers 
who devote almost their entire energies to rearing queens of 
various races for sale. To these specialists, beekeepers have 
in the past looked for the greatest advancement in the 
breeding of better stock, but it is becoming more and more 
evident that this work should not be left entirely to commer- 
cial breeders. In any event it is usually not economical for 
the extensive beekeeper to purchase all of his queens. Queens 
that have been shipped through the mails, especially those 
that have previously been laying heavily, are frequently in- 
jured to the extent that they never again fully show their 
former prolificness. Even if this were not the case, the cost 
of queens is almost always greater than is warranted by the 
2e 417 



418 Beekeeping 

time saved the honey-producer in not rearing them. This 
should not be interpreted as an intimation that American 
queen breeders charge excessive prices, for such is emphati- 
cally not the case, as is shown by the fact that so many queen 
breeders are compelled to abandon the work in a year or 
two as financially unprofitable. From data furnished the 
author by numerous commercial breeders, it is evident that 
many of them would make more money if they devoted 
their time to honey-production. However, each queen 
costs relatively much less in time and honey in requeening 
perhaps hah the colonies in an apiary in a season than it does 
when one rears a large number of queens in making a busi- 
ness of rearing queens for sale. 

Systematic requeening. 

The giving of a young queen to each colony at stated times 
is coming to be the approved practice of some of the best 
commercial honey-producers. After two seasons in a large 
colony in temperate regions (about one year in the tropics), 
the majority of queens are incapable of laying the large num- 
ber of eggs per day that were laid earlier. There are many 
individual exceptions, and if a beekeeper can give each colony 
considerable attention he may get good results from a large 
per cent of his older queens. The extensive commercial 
honey-producer cannot spend much time on each colony and 
he must work by averages. If, therefore, older queens are less 
prolific and if the cost of requeening does not exceed the 
increased profits due to the giving of young queens, he is 
prudent to requeen. Before deciding this he should count 
the cost and should especially see to it that he is reducing 
his queen-rearing to a system so that no time is wasted in 
this work. As honey-production becomes more intensive 
and as queen-rearing methods become more economical of 
time, an increasing number of extensive beekeepers are 
finding it profitable to requeen each colony once in two years 
systematically and, of course, to replace queens earlier if any 
prove defective. 



The Rearing of Queens 419 

Conditions under which queens are reared. 

There are three circumstances under which bees build 
queen cells naturally and in artificial queen-rearing it is 
necessary to bring about or to utilize some one of these condi- 
tions. (1) The most common condition is that found in the 
preparation for swarming (p. 62). (2) If a colony becomes 
queenless and if suitable larvae are present, queens will be 
reared. (3) If a queen becomes inefficient the workers will 
rear young queens to supersede her. It is believed that the 
best queens are those reared under the swarming impulse 
and in supersedure. 

Saving natural queen cells. 

During the swarming season the beekeeper can often 
obtain a number of fine queen cells without any cost in time 
by taking queen cells from colonies preparing to swarm, 
provided the parent queens are of satisfactory stock. By 
placing these in colonies to be requeened, after the removal 
of the condemned queens, requeening takes place naturally 
and without further manipulation. Making a colony queen- 
less early in a honey-flow, like that from clover in the North, 
costs less perhaps than a period of queenlessness at any other 
time, in that the eggs laid then are not of value as future 
honey gatherers. Furthermore, this may often be done in 
connection with dequeening to treat swarming. By keeping 
a watch for opportunities to utilize good natural queen cells, 
time may be saved by reducing the amount of artificial queen- 
rearing. 

Having natural cells built. 

The Miller method. — C. C. Miller advocates the follow- 
ing method : The breeding queen is kept in a two-frame 
nucleus so that all comb built will be of worker cells. Be- 
ginning at about the time queen cells are being built for 
swarming, on the same day each week a frame is inserted in 
place of one of the combs in the nucleus containing the 



420 



Beekeeping 



breeding queen. This new frame contains two small starters 
of foundation about 4 by 1 inches, placed 4 inches from 
each end. If the nucleus is fairly populous, in a week this 
frame will contain considerable comb and the cells will con- 
tain eggs and young larva3. It is now taken away and another 
frame with starters substituted. The new comb is now 
trimmed so that the cells at the edge containing eggs are cut 
away, leaving young larvae on the border of the comb. It is 
then inserted in the middle of a strong colony which has 
begun to build queen cells in preparation for swarming, all 

former queen 
cells being de- 
stroyed and the 
queen being re- 
moved. In ten 
days the comb 
containing queen 
cells from eggs 
of the breeding 
queen is re- 
moved and the 
cells given to 
nuclei from 




Fig. 184. — Comb cut for starting queen cells by the 
Alley method. A strip of partly drawn comb- 
foundation is here used to hold the eggs chosen 
for queen-rearing. 



which the queens are mated, 
in a nursery cage to emerge. 



They may if desired be left 



The Alley method. — For convenience, a method described 
by Alley has much to commend it. A strip of comb is cut 
out, just wide enough to contain one complete row of cells 
containing eggs. This is then cut down by removing about 
two-thirds of the side walls on one side. With a match 
or small stick, one in every two or two in every three eggs 
are destroyed, leaving the cells empty. The strip of comb is 
now fastened to the lower edge of a comb cut as represented 
in Fig. 184, the eggs remaining now being pointed down- 
ward. This prepared frame is now given to a queenless 
colony from which all young unsealed brood has been re- 



The Rearing of Queens 



421 



moved. The workers remodel the cells which contain the 
eggs, making them into queen cells. 



The Hopkins method. — Another method has recently been 
recommended by Hopkins 1 for getting queen cells in quan- 
tity. A new comb is given to a breeding queen to be filled 
with eggs, after which it is removed, and with a sharp knife 
three out of every four rows of cells across the comb are cut 
away to the midrib, leaving every fourth row intact. Two 
of every three eggs are then destroyed as described previously, 
as well as any 
eggs accidentally 
left between the 
rows. This comb 
is now laid face 
down over the 
brood-chamber of 
a queenless colony, 
being raised above 
the top-bars of the 
hive by means of 
an empty frame or 
a specially con- 
structed collar. 
The sealed queen cells are shown in the accompanying il- 
lustration (Fig. 185). To protect the developing queens 
from cold, the horizontal frame should be covered with a 
light mat. To prevent sagging, the comb may be supported 
by wires wound around the frame between the rows of cells. 
It is possible that when so many cells are built some 
queens are not good. 

With any of these methods the queen cells may be cut 
out and protected with a West spiral wire cell protector and 
given to a colony or small nucleus, or they may be placed 
in a nursery cage for the queens to emerge. 




Fig. 185. 



Queen cells reared by the Hopkins 
method. 



1 Hopkins, I., 1911. The illustrated Australasian bee manual, 
ington, N. Z. See also various journal articles by this author. 



Well- 



422 Beekeeping 

Queen cells on artificial bases. 

To have the queen cells in more convenient shape for 
handling, artificial cell cups have been devised. Doolittle 1 
made cups by dipping a smooth stick with rounded end into 
melted wax and removing the adhering wax. Now the usual 
method is to use wooden cell bases. A short cylinder of 
wood is hollowed out on one end and lined with wax, the 
cavity being the size of a queen cell base. The opposite 
end of the cylinder has a nail point in it so that the cell cup 
may be readily attached to a wooden strip or, better, the 
cylinder is flanged and hangs through a hole in the support- 
ing bar (Fig. 187). 2 

Transferring larvce. 

Having made the necessary cups they are inverted, and 
the usual practice is to wipe the inside of the cell with a little 
royal jelly procured from another queen cell. Young 
larvse are now carefully lifted from the worker cells and 
placed in the artificial cell cups, being taken of course from 
the colony of the queen selected as best for breeding. The 
supplied cells are now hung in a colony prepared for cell 
building. The larvse chosen should be as young as they 
can be obtained, preferably not more than one day from the 
egg. Older larvae may be used but the resulting queens 
will probably be less valuable. 

Swarm box. 

A method for getting queen cells started which is in some 
respects preferable to putting them in a queenless colony is 
the use of the swarm box (Fig. 186). A special box, with 
wire screen bottom to provide adequate ventilation, is made 
large enough to hold five full frames, but only three are used, 
there being left alternating spaces the width of a frame. 
The frames used should be abundantly supplied with pollen 

1 Doolittle, G. M., 1889. Scientific queen rearing. Chicago: also later 
editions. 

2 See the various booklets by E. L. Pratt (pseudonym Swarthmore) . 



The Rearing of Queens 



423 



and honey and it is best to have one an empty comb into 
which water is poured. The top of the box is removable 
and has two slots cut in it into which are fitted two cell bars 
which allow the queen cells to hang over the spaces between 
the frames. When the box is prepared with the frames 
fastened in place and the slots filled with the empty cell bars 
(or plain strips of wood), bees are shaken into the box suffi- 
cient to fill it more completely than bees are usually 
found in a hive, care 
being taken that a 
queen is not put into 
the swarm box. This 
should usually be done 
about ten o'clock in 
the morning when the 
field bees are mostly 
away from the hive, 
thus providing a sur- 
plus of young bees. 
In about six hours the 
empty artificial cell 
bases are removed one 
at a time and a worker 
larva transferred to 
each one, the hole 
meanwhile being closed 
by an extra cup. When this is completed the top of 
the box is covered snugly to keep the cells warm and 
the swarm box is put away in a dark cool place. Usually 
by the next morning most of the cell cups will have 
been built down and queen development will have be- 
gun. Considerable variation in the success of this method 
has been reported and there are numerous phases of this 
question on which more light is needed. Some strains 
of bees seem to be poor for this purpose. On the whole, 
however, when directions are carefully followed, a good 
number of fine queen cells will usually be obtained. The 




Fig. 186. — Swarm box for starting queen 
cells, showing position of frames and inner 
side of lid, with wooden cells in place, ready 
for bees. 



424 



Beekeeping 



method commends itself because of the saving of time and 
it is used by many commercial queen breeders. 




Fig. 



187. — Pratt nursery. Two cells are removed to show construction. 
Six such nursery cages fit in a Langstroth frame. 



Having cells built out. 

After cells have been started by any of the methods given, 
they may be put in the upper story of a normal colony, 
protected by perforated zinc to keep the queen from destroy- 
ing the cells. During the time that the queen larvae are 







^f$« 



Fig. 188. — Queen mating hives. This type is used in the apiary of the 
Bureau of Entomology. The frames are supported by tins which may 
be removed and used to fasten three frames together to form a large 
frame of Langstroth dimensions. A feeder is provided either at the 
front (right) or back (left) of the hive. These small hives are un- 
necessarily complex. 



The Rearing of Queens 



425 



taking food they should be kept in a strong colony so that 
they will be abundantly fed. If there is no honey-flow, it is 
necessary to give the colony some sugar syrup or honey 
daily to keep it in prime condition. The cells will be well 
cared for in strong queenless colonies, but to keep colonies 
queenless so long is expensive. It is a well recognized fact 
that if a colony is divided by perforated zinc, the portion 
away from the queen is in condition to build and care for 
queen cells and may be considered as virtually queenless. 

Nursery cages. 

Before the queens are ready to emerge, about ten days 
from the time of transferring the larva3, each cell may be put 
in some sort of nursery cage 
(Fig. 187), so that as the queens 
emerge they will not kill each 
other or destroy other cells. 
As a rule individual cages for 
each queen cell are best. If 
colonies are ready to receive 
them the best method is to 
put each queen cell in a colony 
so that there will be no neces- 
sity for introducing adult 
queens. 



Mating hives. 

In case it is desired to have 
the queens mated before intro- 
ducing them to full colonies 
or if queens are being raised 
for sale, the queen cells or 
virgin queens (as most con- 
venient) may be put in small 
colonies, usually known as nuclei. Two types of mating 
boxes are illustrated (Figs. 188 and 189), but it is usually 
most satisfactory not to use too small a mating box. 




Fig. 189. — " Baby nucleus " hive 
devised by Pratt. An introduc- 
ing cage is in place between the 
frames. 



426 



Beekeeping 



Many beekeepers prefer to use full Langstroth frames in 
boxes built to hold about three frames. 

Classification of queens. 

When a queen has mated (usually in five to eight days) 
and has begun to deposit eggs she is ready to use and is 
known in the queen trade as untested. At this time it 
cannot be determined whether she has mated with a drone 
of her own race, but if she is kept for a little over three weeks 
(until her progeny emerges) the color of the workers is taken 
as an indication of the purity or impurity of her mating. 
If apparently purely mated she is known in the trade as a 

tested queen. Further observa- 
tions may cause her to be classed 
as select tested or finally as a 
breeding queen. 




Fig. 190. — Queen mailing cage. 
The right-hand hole is filled 
with candy which is then 
covered with a circle of comb- 
foundation or waxed paper. 
The cork at the end is re- 
moved when used for an in- 
troducing cage. 



Mailing cages. 

If queens are to be shipped 
they are usually put in a queen 
mailing cage (Fig. 190) with some 
workers and an adequate supply 
of food, usually a soft paste or 
candy made by kneading together 
confectioner's (not powdered) sugar and honey without 
heating. Queens are frequently mailed across the con- 
tinent or from Europe in these cages and have been 
shipped successfully to New Zealand. Usually a trip of 
over ten days results in considerable loss. 

Introducing cages: 

The queen mailing cage is also used as an introducing 
cage or special cages may be used for this purpose. Cages 
are so constructed that the queen is separated from the 
workers in the hive that is to receive her by soft candy. 
The workers gradually eat this out and in the meantime 
the queen acquires the colony odor so that when the candy 



The Rearing of Queens 427 

is eaten away she walks out without excitement and is 
accepted. This is the most common method of introducing 
queens. Some beekeepers dip the queen in honey and place 
her in the colony. The workers promptly remove the honey 
and usually accept the queen. Others fill the hive with 
smoke and close the entrance after letting the queen run in. 
Whatever is done the queen should acquire the colony odor 
so that the workers will not attack her as they normally do 
strange queens. Young virgin queens are more readily 
accepted than mated queens. Colonies that have been 
queenless for a considerable time are usually difficult to 
requeen and this is especially true if in the meantime some 
of the workers have begun to lay eggs (p. 187). In intro- 
ducing a queen it is necessary that the colony be queenless 
or the strange queen will be killed. 

Improvement of stock. 

In addition to the manipulations of queen-rearing there 
are some fundamental principles which should be considered.. 
It should be the policy not only to provide queens as needed 
but to keep steadily improving the stock. For this work 
beekeepers usually depend on the specialists in queen-rearing 
but it is desirable that each beekeeper keep the ideal of 
bettering his stock constantly before him. The breeding of 
Italian queens for additional yellow on the abdomen, result- 
ing in the so-called five-banded bees, clearly demonstrates 
that changes can be made by applying the principles of 
breeding to queen-rearing. While the merits of these bees 
is a subject of dispute the success in this line of endeavor 
should encourage the beekeeper to believe that as striking 
things are possible in other lines of bee breeding. 

It is evident that certain characteristics which the bee- 
keeper wishes to develop and some which he wishes to reduce 
or destroy must be inherited. Exceptional prolificness, 
gentleness, excessive swarming, protracted breeding and 
their opposites are characteristic of various races and strains 
of bees but not of the entire species. This leads to the belief 



428 Beekeeping 

that the bee breeder may hope to modify his bees along 
these lines by proper care in selecting his breeding material. 
The actual results of practical beekeepers also show that 
improvement may be made, as indicated by increased crops. 

Study of breeding needed. 

It is not practical in this place to enter upon an elaborate 
discussion of the methods and results of modern breeding. 
To what characters of bees Mendelian inheritance is oper- 
ative has not been shown by the work so far done although 
color is probably so inherited. Bee breeding has not been 
subject to the researches of the theoretical breeders but work 
of this character is greatly to be desired. Certain funda- 
mental facts should be mentioned, however, and they are 
chosen here because they have been misunderstood by bee- 
keepers writing for bee journals. The fact that a queen is 
poorly developed because of inadequate care during develop- 
ment does not make her undesirable as a breeding queen 
and, conversely, prolificness induced by extra care and 
manipulation does not make a queen more valuable for 
breeding, because characters acquired during the life of the 
individual are not inherited. 

Selection of drones. 

As great care should be exercised in choosing the drones 
as is employed in selecting the breeding queen, but most 
beekeepers fail to give this subject adequate consideration. 
In general the drone (father) is just as influential in deciding 
the character of the offspring as is the queen (mother). 
Drones may be selected by allowing drones to fly only from 
the colony or colonies which are up to the breeding standard 
and drone production in these colonies may be increased by 
providing drone comb. Drone rearing in other colonies 
may be restricted by giving only worker comb or the un- 
desirable drones may be trapped by a queen and drone trap 
(Fig. 30). While the beekeeper cannot choose the indi- 
vidual drone with which a queen mates he can increase the 



The Rearing of Queens 429 

chances of desirable matings by providing plenty of drones 
of good stock and restricting undesirable drones. When 
the workers begin to drive drones from the hives they may 
be protected by putting them in a queenless colony, where 
they will not be molested. 

Desirability of pure races. 

Above all, the desirability of pure races should be empha- 
sized. It is a common belief that hybrids (usually crosses 
of Italians and blacks) are good honey gatherers. Crosses 
of other races are also recommended. The first cross is 
often desirable from the standpoint of honey gathering but 
it is better to breed from pure stock only, for the offspring 
of a hybrid queen is exceptionally variable and it is rather a 
matter of chance if good stock results. Presumably the 
desirable characteristics of certain crosses might be fixed 
by judicious and intelligent selection, but this is a problem 
for a professional breeder and not for the honey producer or 
even for the commercial queen breeder. 

Danger from inbreeding. 

This has been much overestimated in the discussions of 
breeding in the bee journals. Inbreeding may accentuate 
undesirable characters but it may likewise help to fix desir- 
able characters, and it has been used with good results in 
other lines of breeding. The commercial honey producer 
need have little fear of harmful results, for if any signs of 
degeneracy are observed it is easy at any time to introduce 
new blood. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

Beekeeping does not consist solely in caring for bees 
and in using or selling their products. The activities of 
beekeepers are expressed in various allied fields and since 
these are things about which the beekeeper wants and should 
have information, it is proposed in a brief closing chapter 
to give a few notes which may be helpful, but which do not 
find a place in the previous chapters. 

Literature on bees and beekeeping. 

In the centuries during which men have been interested in 
the honeybee, hundreds and even thousands of books have 
been written on this subject. No other insect, and perhaps 
no other animal except man, has been so voluminously 
discussed. Many of these books are now of interest only 
to the collectors of old bee books, for the advance in our 
knowledge of these subjects through investigation has 
naturally left many of the older books far behind. That 
there have been in the ranks of bee enthusiasts some men of 
rare powers of observation, is attested by the enduring value 
of some of their works. Even to list the books on bee- 
keeping would probably require a book the size of this one, 
so this interesting task must be set aside. The beekeeper 
will find it to his advantage to read almost every one of the 
few books now offered to the American beekeeper. 

In addition to the works issued in book form, there is an 
extensive literature on bees in scientific journals, unfortu- 
nately not readily accessible to most beekeepers. Reference 
is made to many of these papers in the preceding pages. 

430 



Miscellaneous Information 431 

Some of the journals devoted to beekeeping have contained 
articles of lasting practical value but unfortunately these 
journals are too often read and at once cast aside, not being 
properly filed and indexed for future references. The Bureau' 
of Entomology has a working bibliography, arranged by 
authors and subjects, which is far from complete but which, 
nevertheless, is helpful and is probably the most extensive 
so far attempted for beekeeping literature. It contains 
about 20,000 titles. 

At present there are four journals devoted to the interests 
of the beekeeper published in the United States and one 
in Canada. A larger number appear regularly in various 
European countries to which unfortunately few American 
beekeepers have access. There should be regular summaries 
and abstracts of the best articles in these journals prepared 
for American beekeepers either in a bee journal or separately. 

Several valuable bulletins have been issued by state insti- 
tutions. 

Organizations of beekeepers. 

There are in the United States probably 100 societies of 
beekeepers, organized to protect the interests of those now 
engaged in the work, to educate their members in the prac- 
tical and scientific phases of beekeeping and to promote 
the industry. Most of these associations are active and help- 
ful and they are nearly all growing and being improved. 
Every beekeeper should be a member of one or more of these 
organizations, to help and be helped. The National Bee 
Keepers' Association is an association of affiliated societies, 
the business being conducted through annual meetings of 
delegates. 

Laws. 

It is not proposed in this place to discuss the legal status of 
bees or to delineate the legal rights of their owners. Some 
of the associations of beekeepers offer protection to their 
members in case of legal complications. 



432 Beekeeping 

The special laws in which beekeepers are most interested 
are those which provide for the inspection of apiaries for 
the control of bee diseases. This work falls on the individual 
states, there being at present no Federal laws on this 
subject. The number of states having such inspection 
has increased rapidly within recent years until now practi- 
cally all the states in which beekeeping is an important 
industry offer such protection. The desirable work now is 
to improve and unify these laws and to bring about greater 
co-operation in the inspection service of the various 
states. The Association of Economic Entomologists now 
has a section devoted to apiary inspection which is attempt- 
ing this work. 

Some states have laws which prohibit the spraying of 
fruit trees while in full bloom, the purpose of these being to 
prevent the poisoning of bees at work on the blossoms. 

Supplies for beekeepers. 

It has been shown in earlier chapters that it is quite neces- 
sary that hives and other apiary supplies be accurately made, 
and for this reason it is usually desirable that a beekeeper 
buy his equipment from some manufacturer, unless he is a 
skilled wood worker. The American beekeepers are fortu- 
nate in that the supply business of the country is adequate. 
There are a number of extensive establishments, and most 
of them have agencies or branches in various parts of the 
country from which supplies may be obtained on short 
notice. The manufacturers will gladly send catalogs on 
request and give information concerning agencies. The 
addresses of manufacturers may be obtained from adver- 
tisements in the bee journals. 

The uses of honey. 

This subject might well form the title of a separate chap- 
ter, were space available for a longer discussion. While the 
production of honey does not include its use, this is a subject 



Miscellaneous Information 433 

about which beekeepers should have information as an aid 
to the early selling of their wares. They and their families 
may set a good example to their customers by using honey 
freely in the homes. 

That honey is preferable to other syrups is usually acknowl- 
edged. It is assuredly to be preferred to the cheap jams and 
jellies which are so common in our markets. The chief 
use of honey in the home is as a spread for bread, for which 
purpose it may be used in any form. It is often recom- 
mended in old recipe books and books on beekeeping for use 
for almost all human ailments, from boils and freckles to 
diphtheria and tape worms, but in these days such medicinal 
uses are not to be commended except on the advice of a 
physician. 

A use of honey which should be more emphasized is in 
cooking. Fruits preserved in honey have long been relished 
for their superior flavor and are still in high favor among 
those who have tried them. The famous Bar le due pre- 
serves are made with honey. It is used extensively in com- 
mercial bakeries, especially in cakes which will probably 
be kept for some time before they are eaten. It is also used 
in some of the finest confections as well as in the making of 
vinegar. In former days, and to some extent to-day in parts 
of Europe, considerable honey was used in making fermented 
drinks which are reported to have been as powerful as they 
were popular. 

There has recently been issued by the United States 
Department of Agriculture a bulletin x on the use of honey 
in the home which should be in the hands of every beekeeper, 
every beekeeper's wife and every beekeeper's customers. 
Since it may be had on application it should have a wide 
distribution. The recipes have been carefully tested and 
only a few of the best are given. A substitution rule is 
given by which honey may be substituted for sugar in smy 
cake. 

1 Hunt, Caroline L. and Atwater, Helen W., 1915. Honey and its uses 
in the home. Farmers' Bulletin No. 653, 26 pp. 
2p 



434 Beekeeping 

Honey crop reports. 

In 1914 the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture inaugurated a system of crop reports 
on honey. The first report was on the condition of the bees 
and of honey-producing plants on May 1st, to enable bee- 
keepers and others interested to form an opinion as to the 
probable results of the season. At the close of the season a 
report of the crop was issued. When it is considered that 
this is the first attempt at anything of this kind, it is encour- 
aging to learn from beekeepers that the estimate for the 
various states coincides closely with their experience. In 
1915 a somewhat more elaborate program is proposed. It 
will, of course, be recognized that reporters need experience 
in work of this character before they can give data which 
are most serviceable, but there is every reason to hope that with 
an accumulation of data for several years these reports will 
be of great value to honey producers. The beekeeper will 
then be provided with reliable data which heretofore have 
been obtainable only by honey buyers through their business 
connections and he will thus be enabled to know what he 
should ask for his products. 

Educational work in beekeeping. 

The advances of past years in beekeeping have come 
chiefly through an exchange of ideas and results through the 
journals and books on this subject and more recently by the 
distribution of bulletins from the Federal and State labora- 
tories devoted to beekeeping. It is now coming to be 
generally accepted that these educational agencies are not 
entirely sufficient and also that the industry is worthy of 
more recognition. Several agricultural colleges are now 
teaching beekeeping and it is being included to a limited 
extent in the extension work of various institutions. If 
this work can be enlarged adequately there is a great future 
for the industry along commercial lines and it is to the 
interest of every person engaged in any branch of beekeep- 
ing activities to further this development. 



Miscellaneous Information 435 

The Bureau of Entomology. 

The author includes at the close of this book, with some 
hesitancy, a brief statement of the work of the Bureau of 
Entomology of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture on beekeeping, with which he is associated. This is 
done for the purpose of informing present and prospective 
beekeepers of the activities and purposes of this office, with 
a view to enlisting their interest and support. 

Since the various states are rapidly taking up work in 
beekeeping and since the state officials are in a position to 
carry on educational and extension work more advanta- 
geously, especially with the present small appropriations for 
Federal work, it seems desirable that the work of the Bureau 
of Entomology should be confined chiefly to investigation. 
At the present time these investigations include work on the 
activities of bees during the winter season and the practical 
wintering of bees, the development of bees, a study of the 
sense organs of the adult bee and the function of these organs 
in bee behavior and the diseases of bees. Some other lines 
of work of importance have been investigated and still 
others are waiting inauguration, and when funds are avail- 
able work will be begun on them. 

The work in bee culture is now carried on in a laboratory 
(see Frontispiece) located in Drummond, Maryland, a suburb 
of Washington. This laboratory may easily be reached 
from the city by trolley. All mail should be addressed to the 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 

In addition to the specific lines of investigation the office 
desires to assist in the many problems which are constantly 
arising, and correspondence of beekeepers is invited. 

The results of the work of this office are published, in so 
far as possible, in the series of publications of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. These publications, so long as they 
are in print, may be obtained either from the Department or 
from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing 
Office, Washington, D.C. The following papers, originating 
in the Bureau of Entomology, have been issued since 1905 : 



436 Beekeeping 

Phillips, E. F., 1911. The treatment of bee diseases. Farmers' 

Bulletin No. 442. 
Phillips, E. F., 1911. Bees. Farmers' Bulletin No. 447. 
Demuth, Geo. S., 1912. Comb honey. Farmers' Bulletin No. 503. 
Phillips, E. F., 1905. The rearing of queen bees. Bulletin No. 55, 

Bureau of Entomology. 
Report of the meeting of inspectors of apiaries, San Antonio, Texas, 

November 12, 1906. Bulletin No. 70, Bureau of Entomology. 

1907. 
Phillips, E. F., 1907. Production and care of extracted honey. 

Bulletin No. 75, Part I, Bureau of Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F., 1907. Wax moths and American foul brood. Bulle- 
tin No. 75, Part II, Bureau of Entomology. 
Gates, Burton N., 1908. Bee diseases in Massachusetts. Bulletin 

No. 75, Part III, Bureau of Entomology. 
White, G. F., 1908. The relation of the etiology (cause) of bee dis- 
eases to the treatment. Bulletin No. 75, Part IV, Bureau of 

Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F., 1909. A brief survey of Hawaiian beekeeping. 

Bulletin No. 70, Part V, Bureau of Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F., 1909. The status of apiculture in the United 

States. Bulletin No. 70, Part VI, Bureau of Entomology. 
Gates, Burton N., 1909. Beekeeping in Massachusetts. Bulletin 

No. 70, Part VII, Bureau of Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F. and White, G. F., 1912. Historical notes on the 

causes of bee diseases. Bulletin No. 98, Bureau of Entomology. 
Casteel, D. B., 1912. The behavior of the honey bee in pollen 

collecting. Bulletin No. 121, Bureau of Entomology. 
White, G. F., 1906. The bacteria of the apiary, with special 

reference to bee diseases. Technical Series No. 14, Bureau of 

Entomology. 
Snodgrass, R. E., 1910. The anatomy of the honey bee. Techni- 
cal Series No. 18, Bureau of Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F., 1906. The brood diseases of bees. Circular No. 

79, Bureau of Entomology. 
White, G. F., 1907. The cause of American foul brood. Circular 

No. 94, Bureau of Entomology. 
Phillips, E. F., 1911. The occurrence of bee diseases in the United 

States. Circular No. 138, Bureau of Entomology. 
White, G. F., 1912. The cause of European foul brood. Circular 

No. 157, Bureau of Entomology. 
Casteel, D. B., 1912. The manipulation of the wax scales of the 

honey bee. Circular No. 161, Bureau of Entomology. 
White, G. F., 1913. Sacbrood, a disease of bees. Circular No. 

169, Bureau of Entomology. 



Miscellaneous Information 437 

White, G. F., 1914. Destruction of germs of infectious bee dis- 
eases by heating. Bulletin No. 92, Department of Agriculture. 

Phillips, E. F. and Demuth, Geo. S., 1914. The temperature of the 
honey bee cluster in winter. Bulletin No. 93, Department of 
Agriculture. 

Gates, Burton N., 1914. The temperature of the bee colony. 
Bulletin No. 96, Department of Agriculture. 

The following papers have been published in other series 
of publications of the Department and with one exception 
have not been prepared in the Bureau of Entomology : 

Van Dine, D. L. and Thompson, Alice R., 1908. Hawaiian honeys. 
Bulletin No. 17, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Phillips, E. F., 1914. Porto Rican beekeeping. Bulletin No. 15, 
Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Browne, C. A., 1908. Chemical analysis and composition of Ameri- 
can honeys, including a microscopical study of honey pollen 
by W. J. Young. Bulletin No. 110, Bureau of Chemistry. 

Bryan, Given and Sherwood, 1912. Chemical analysis and com- 
position of imported honey from Cuba, Mexico and Haiti. 
Bulletin No. 154, Bureau of Chemistry. 

Westgate, J. M. and Vinall, H. N., 1912. Sweet clover. Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 485. 

Hunt, Caroline L. and Atwater, Helen W., 1915. Honey and its 
uses in the home. Farmers' Bulletin No. 653. 



APPENDIX 

EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE 
ANATOMICAL ILLUSTRATIONS 

Since nearly all of the illustrations of anatomical parts are 
from the work of Snodgrass it may be best to give the list 
of symbols and alphabetical lettering prepared by him and 
given on pp. 141-147 of his paper. These will aid in iden- 
tifying parts which are labeled in the illustrations, used in 
this book to illustrate certain portions only. 



1. SYMBOLS 

A, anal vein; 1A, first anal, 2 A, second anal, etc. 

AcGl, accessory gland of male reproductive organs. 

AGl, acid gland of sting, opening into poison sac (PsnSc). 

AGID, duct of acid gland of sting. 

An, anus. 

ANP, anterior wing process of no turn. 

ANR, anterior marginal ridge of notum. 

Ant, antenna. 

AntL, antennal lobe of brain. 

AntNv, antennal nerve. 

Ao, aorta. 

Ap, apodeme, any internal chitinous process of body-wall. 

Aph, anterior phragma of any tergum, prephragma. 

Ax, the axillaries or articular sclerites of the wing base, 

designated individually as lAx, 2 Ax, 3 Ax, and 4Ax. 
ax, accessory axillary sclerites of irregular occurrence in 

connection with the principal axillaries (Ax). 
AxC, axillary cord, or ligament-like thickening of posterior 

edge of basal membrane of wing, attached to posterior 

angle of scutellum. 
AxM, axillary membrane, the thin membrane of wing base, 

containing the axillary sclerites and forming in some 

cases the lobes called alulae. 
439 



440 



Beekeeping 



B, bulb (bulb of penis or of sheath of sting). 
BC, body-cavity. 

be, any particular part of body cavity such as that pro- 
longed into the mouth parts, legs or pieces of the sting. 

BCpx, bursa copulatrix. 

BGl, alkaline gland of sting. 

BM, basement membrane. 

Br, brain. 

IBr, protocerebrum. 

2Br, deutocerebrum. 

SBr, tritocerebrum. 

Brb, barb. 

BW, body-wall. 

C, costa, first vein of wing. 

Cb, pollen basket or corbiculum on hind tibia of worker. 

CC, crystalline cone of compound eye. 

Cd, cardo. 

Cer, cercus. 

CL, crystalline lens of compound eye. 

CI, Cls, cell, cells. 

Cla, claw. 

Clp, clypeus. 

Clsp, clasping lobes of ninth segment of male, perhaps 
equivalent to the four gonapophyses of ninth seg- 
ment of female. 

ICIsp, upper or outer clasper. 

2Clsp, lower or inner clasper. 

Com, commissure (of either nervous or tracheal system). 

Cor, cornea. 

Ctl, cuticle, the chitinous layer of the epidermis. 

Cu, cubitus, fifth vein of generalized wing. 

Cv, cross-vein. 

Cx, coxa. 

CxP, pleural coxal process. 

Dct, duct. 

DDph, dorsal diaphragm. 

Dph, diaphragm. 

DphCls, diaphragm cells. 

Dphmb, membrane of diaphragm. 

DphMcl, muscle fibers of diaphragm. 

E, compound eye. 

EAp, apodeme of extensor muscle. 

EjD, ejaculatory duct. 

Em, lateral emargination of notum. 

EMcl, extensor muscle. 



Appendix 



441 



Emp, 


empodium. 


Enz, 


digestive vesicles formed by ventricular epithelium. 


Ep, 


epicranium. 


Ephy, 


epipharynx. 


Epm, 


epimerum. 


Eps, 


episternum. 


Epth, 


epithelium. 


F, 


femur. 


Fl, 


flagellum. 


For, 


foramen magnum. 


Ft, 


front. 


FtCom, 


frontal commissure. 


FtGng, 


frontal ganglion. 


FtNv, 


frontal nerve. 


Fu, 


furca or median entosternal apodeme of thoracic sterna. 


G, 


gonapophysis. 


Ga, 


galea. 


Ge, 


gena. 


Gl, 


gland. 


1GI, 


large pharyngeal gland in anterior part of head of 




worker. 


2GI, 


salivary gland in posterior part of head. 


SGI, 


thoracic salivary gland. 


4GI, 


small median gland below pharyngeal plate (s). 


Gls, 


glossa. 


Gng, 


ganglion. 


Gu, 


gula. 


H, 


head. 


Hk, 


hooks on front edge of hind wing. 


Hphy, 


hypopharynx. 


Hr, 


hair. 


hr, 


surface disk of "auditory" organ of antenna, probably 




modified base of sensory hair. 


HS, 


honey stomach. 


Ht, 


heart. 


ht, 


individual chamber of heart. 


HtCls, 


pericardia] cells. 


HtTraSc, 


pericardial tracheal sac. 


Int, 


intima, the chitinous lining of any internal organ. 


IT, 


tergum of first abdominal segment, the median segment, 




or propodeum, incorporated into thorax. 


L, 


leg. 


Lb, 


labium. 


Lbl, 


labellum. 


LbNv, 


labial nerve. 



442 



Beekeeping 



LbPlp, labial palpus. 

Lc, lacinia. 

Let, lancet of sting, equivalent to first gonapophysis (1G). 

Lg, ligula. 

LGl, "lubricating" gland of sting (not shown in figures). 

Lin, median lobe of lingua or hypopharynx. 

Lm, labrum. 

LMcl, longitudinal muscles. 

Imcl, ventral longitudinal muscles of thorax. 

LmNv, labral nerve. 

Lr, lorum. 

LTra, trachea of leg. 

Lum, lumen, the cavity of any hollow organ, whether the 
glossa, sting, alimentary canal, or gland. 

M, media, fourth vein of wing. M1-M4, first to fourth 
branches of media. 

m, median plate or plates of wing base. 

Mai, Malpighian tubules. 

Mb, intersegmental membrane. 

mb, membrane. 

m-cu, medio-cubital cross-vein. 

MD, disklike muscle apodeme. 

Md, mandible. 

lMdGl, outer saclike mandibular gland. 

2MdGl, inner racemose mandibular gland. 

MdNv, mandibular nerve. 

Mes, mesathorax, designated by figure 2 placed after and 
below any thoracic symbol. 

Met, metathorax, designated by figure 3 placed after and 
below any thoracic symbol. 

Mi, the chitinous plates of the neck collectively, the "mi- 
cro thorax," individually designated mi. 

mi, cervical (microthoracic) sclerites. 

m-m, median cross-vein. 

Mps, mouth parts or trophi. 

Mt, mentum. 

Mth, mouth. 

Mx, maxilla. 

MxPlp, maxillary palpus. 

MxNv, maxillary nerve. 

N, notum. 

Nu, nucleus. 

Nv, nerve. 

0, ocellus. 

Ob, oblong plate. 



Appendix 



443 



Oc, 

(E, 

CECom, 

Om, 

OpL, 

Ost, 

Ov, 

ov, 

OvD, 

OvO, 

P, 



IP, 2P, 

8P, 4P, 
PA, 
Pel, 
PD, 

Pd, 
Pen, 
PenB, 
Peps, 

Pge, 
Pgl, 

Pgu, 

Ph, 

Phy, 

PI, 

Pi, 

Plf, 

Pig, 
Pip, 

Pmb, 

PMcl, 

PN, 



pn, 



PNP, 
PNR, 



occiput. 

oesophagus. 

circurncesophageal commissures. 

ommatidium. 

optic lobe. 

ostium or lateral aperture of heart. 

ovary. 

ovariole, individual ovarian tube. 

oviduct. 

opening of vagina or median oviduct. 

paraptera, small pleural plates below base of wing, 
typically two episternal paraptera or preparaptera 
(IP and 2P) before pleural wing process (WP), and 
two epimeral paraptera or postparaptera (3P and 
4P) behind wing process. 

episternal paraptera, preparaptera. 

epimeral paraptera, postparaptera. 

arm of pleural ridge. 

postclypeus. 

muscle disk of episternal paraptera, giving insertion to 
pronator muscle (not present in the bee). 

peduncle. 

penis. 

bulb of penis. 

preepisternum. 

postgena. 

paraglossa. 

pregula. 

phragma. 

pharynx. 

pleurum, 

subdivision of pleurum. 

palpifer, palpus-carrying lobe of maxilla. 

palpiger, palpus-carrying lobe of labium. 

palpus. 

peritrophic membrane. 

pronator muscle. 

postnotum or pseudonotum, the second or postalar 
tergal plate of the wing-bearing segments of most 
insects, the " postscutellum " of higher orders. 

small rod connecting postscutellum (postnotum PN) 
with upper edge of epimerum, probably a detached 
piece of the former. 

posterior notal wing process. 

posterior marginal ridge of notum. 



444 Beekeeping 

Pph, posterior phragma or postphragma of any tergum, 
carried by the second notal plate or postnotum (PN), 
the " postscutellum " of higher forms. 

PR, internal pleural ridge, the entopleurum, marked exter- 
nally by pleural suture (PS). 

Prb, proboscis. 

PrbFs, fossa of proboscis. 

PS, pleural suture, external line separating episternum and 
epimerum, marking site of internal pleural ridge. 

Ps, presternum. 

Psc, prescutum. 

Pscl, postscutellum (postnotum). 

Psl, poststernellum. 

PsnC, poison canal of sting. 

PsnSc, poison sac of sting into which opens the acid gland {AGl). 

Pt, sensory pit. 

Ptr, peritreme, spiracle-bearing sclerite. 

Pvent, proventriculus. 

PventVlv, proventricular tube or valve in ventriculus. 

Qd, quadrate plate of sting. 

R, radius, third vein of generalized wing. R1-R5, first to 
fifth branches of radius. R s radial sector. 

RAp, apodeme of flexor muscle. 

Rd, posterior extension or reduplication of any tergal or 
sternal plate overlapping plate following it. 

Red, rectum, the large intestine of insects. 

RGl, rectal glands. 

r-m, radio-medial cross-vein. 

RMcl, flexor muscle of mandible or wing. 

IRMcl, dorsal retractor muscle of ligula. 

2RMcl, ventral retractor muscle of ligula. 

R s , radial sector, or second branch of radius at first forking. 

S, sternum. 

SalD, salivary duct. 

SalDO, external opening of salivary duct. 

Sc, subcosta, second vein of generalized wing. 

Scl, scutellum. 

Sep, scape. 

Set. scutum. 

Sga, subgalea. 

Sh, sheath of sting, equivalent to the second gonapophyses 
(2G) or middle pair on ninth abdominal segment. 

ShA, basal arm of sheath of sting. 

ShB, bulb of sheath of sting or ovipositor. 

ShS, shaft of sheath of sting. 



Appendix 



445 



SInt, small intestine. 

SI, sternellum. 

Slin, superlingua, embryonic lateral lobes of hypopharynx, 

true appendages of fifth head segment. 

Smt, submentum. 

SoeGng, subcesophageal ganglion. 

Sp, spiracle. 

Spun, spermatheca. 

SpmGl, spermathecal gland. 

St, stipes. 

StgNv, stomatogastric nerve. 

Stn, sting. 

StnPlp, palpuslike appendages of the sting, equivalent to the 

third gonapophyses {3G) or the outer pair on ninth 

abdominal segment. 

T, tergum. 

IT, first abdominal tergum, the propodeum, incorporated 

into thorax. 

II T, second abdominal tergum. 

Tar, tarsus. 

Tb, tibia. 

Ten, large tentorial arms of head, the mesocephalic pillars. 

ten, slender tentorial arch over foramen magnum. 

Tes, testes. 

Tg, tegula. 

TMcl, transverse muscle. 

Tn, trochantin (not separated from sternum in bee). 

TnC, coxal condyle of trochantin. 

Tr, trochanter. 

Tra, trachea. 

TraCom, transverse ventral tracheal commissures of abdomen. 

TraSc, tracheal sac. 

Tri, triangular plate of sting. 

Vag, vagina. 

VDef, vas deferens. 

VDph, ventral diaphragm. 

Vent, ventriculus. 

VentVlv, ventricular fold or valve in small intestine. 

Ves, vesicula seminalis. 

Vlv, valve of sting carried by lancet. 

VMcl, large vertical muscles of thorax. 

VNR, internal, median V-shaped notal ridge, the "entodor- 

sum." 

Vx, vertex. 

W, wing. 



446 Beekeeping 

WiNv, mesothoracic wing nerve. 

WzNv, metathoracic wing nerve. 

WP, wing process of pleurum. 

2. ALPHABETICAL LETTERING 

a, clypeal suture. 

b, anterior tentorial pit, in clypeal suture. 

c, posterior tentorial pit, in occiput beside foramen mag- 

num. 

d, thickened posterior edge of lateral wall of fossa of 

proboscis. 

e, process at upper end of d articulating with cardo of 

maxilla and forming maxillary suspensorium. 
/, internal median keel of vertex in cranium of drone. 

g, suspensorial ligaments of anterior end of oesophagus. 

h, pharyngeal rod. 

i, convolutions of dorsal blood vessel. 

j, anterior articular knob of mandible, 

/c, ventral groove of glossa. 

I, ventral groove of maxillary rod. 

m, median plates of wing base. 

n, basal hooks of glossa. 

o, median ventral plate of ligula. 

p, dorsal plates of anterior end of mentum, supporting 

ligula. 
q, inner wall of canal of glossa. 

r, chitinous rod of glossa. 

s, pharyngeal plate, on anterior part of floor of pharynx. 

t, salivary pouch opening on dorsal side of base of ligula, 

receiving common duct of salivary glands (SalD). 
u, oblique muscles inserted upon dorsal side of salivary 

pouch of ligula. 
v, transverse or V-shaped suture on surface of mesonotum 

or metanotum, formed by the internal V-shaped 

ridge or "entodorsum" (VNR). 
w, lateral lobe of pronotum projecting posteriorly over the 

first spiracle. 
x, thoracic plate lying laterad of anterior part of sternum, 

often regarded as a part of presternum. 
y, accessory sclerite of fourth axillary (4 Ax) of front wing, 

affording insertion for slender muscle (cc) attached 

below to common apodeme of mesosternum and 

metasternum. 
z, coxal condyles of mesothoracic and metathoracic sterna, 



Appendix 447 

probably really the coxal condyles of trochantins 
(TnC) fused entirely with the sterna and epi- 
sterna in each segment. 

aa, muscle arising from inner wall of mesothoracic pleurum 

and inserted upon outer end of corresponding scutel- 
lum, probably accessory in function to the great 
vertical muscles (VMcl) between the mesothoracic 
sternum and scutum. 

66, coxo-axillary muscle, extending from upper end of 

coxa to third parapterum (3P). 

cc, muscle inserted upon accessory sclerite (y) of fourth 

axillary (4 Ax) from common entosternum of meso- 
thorax and metathorax. 

dd, notch of antenna cleaner on first tarsal joint (ITar) of 

front leg. 

ee, spine of antenna cleaner situated on distal end of tibia 

(Tb). 

ff, so-called "wax shears" or "wax pincers." 

gg, transverse chitinous band of empodium (Emp), which 

compresses its two lobes when not in use and spreads 
out by muscular effort. 

hh, dorsal plate supporting empodium. 

ii, ventral plate supporting empodium. 

jj, dorsal groove of lancet interlocking with ventral ridge 

of sheath of sting. 

kk, sting chamber within end of seventh abdominal seg- 

ment, lodging sting whose accessory plates are derived 
from eighth and ninth segments. 

II, reservoir of thoracic salivary gland. 

mm, receptacular chitinous pouches on ventral side of 

pharyngeal plate (s) receiving ducts of large lateral 
pharyngeal glands of head (1GI). 

nn, "stomach-mouth" at summit of pro ventricular pro- 

jection within honey stomach (HS). 

oo, pores on lancets and shaft of sting sheath opening 

to exterior from prolongation of body-cavity (6c) con- 
tained in each. 

pp, gelatinous layer secreted upon inner surface of ventric- 

ular epithelium. 

qq, food contents of alimentary canal. 

rr, cells of ventricular epithelium apparently forming the 

internal gelatinous layer. 

ss, cartilaginous mass on inner surface of dorsal wall of 

bulb of penis ( PenB). 

it, dorsal plates of bulb of penis. 



448 Beekeeping 

uu, fimbriated dorsal lobes of penis at base of bulb. 

vv, ventral scalariform row of plates on tube of penis. 

ww, dorsal basal plates of penis. 

xx, ventral basal plates of penis. 

yy, basal pouch of penis. 

zz, copulatory sacs of penis. 



INDEX 



Abandoning of hive, 81. 
Abdomen, 140. 
Achroia grissella, 414. 
Acid, formic, in honey, 84. 
Acid in cleaning wax, 338. 
Activity in winter cluster, 90, 347. 
Adult bee diseases, 409. 
Adulteration of comb-foundation, 341 . 

of wax, 339. 
Advantages of comb-honey, 304. 

of extracted-honey, 287. 
Advertising honey, 332. 
African bees, 202. 
After-swarms, 71. 
After-swarming prevented, 275. 
Age, method of determining, 107. 
Alfalfa, 206. 

region, 208. 
Alley method of queen-rearing, 420. 
Alley traps, 32. 
Amateur beekeepers, 2. 
American appliances, advantage of, 

11. 
American foul brood, 81, 398. 
Anatomical symbols, 439. 
Anatomy, 132. 

Antennae, two pairs in embryo, 99. 
Antennal sense organs, 174. 
Ants, enemies, 416. 

comparison of colony, 106. 
Aphids, source of honey-dew, 371. 
Apiary grounds, 228. 

house, 23. 

size, 232. 
Apis, genus, 193. 
Apparatus, evolution of, 23. 

requirements in, 23. 
Arrangement of hives, 231. 



Artificial queen-cells, 422. 

swarming, effects of, 58. 

swarms, 283. 
Asiatic bees, 203. 
Aspinwall hive, 78. 
Associations of beekeepers, 431. 

Bacillus larvce, 401. 

pluton, 402. 
Bait sections, 317. 
Barrels for honey, 320. 
Bee-escape, 24, 32. 

-glue, 50. 

-house, 9, 10. 

-journals, 431. 
Beekeeping a minor industry, 3. 

now undeveloped, 5. 
Bee-space, 26, 27. 

-stings sometimes serious, 13. 
Beeswax production, 334. 

source, 109. 
Bee-tree, transferring from, 248. 
Bee-way sections, 308. 
Beginner's outfit, 226. 
Beginning beekeeping, 222. 

on small scale, 2. 
Behavior, knowledge of, necessary, 
13, 34. 

nature of, 180. 

of swarming bees, 74. 

source of data, 35. 
Bellringing in swarming, 66. 
Berlepsch, Baron v., 67. 
Bibliography, 430. 
Black bees, 200. 

brood, 401. 
Bleaching wax, 338. 
Blending honeys, 322. 



Note : The names of honey -plants given in the Annotated List of Honey- 
Plants (pp. 372 to 396) are not included in this alphabetical index since 
they are given in alphabetical order in the list. 
2g 449 



450 



Index 



Blood of bees, 150 

Boiler for wax rendering, 335. 

Bonnier, 120. 

Bordas' names of glands, 111. 

Bottles for honey, 322. 

Bottom starters, 312. 

Bouvier, 52. 

Brain, 163. 

Br aula coeca, 416. 

Break test for wax, 339. 

Breathing, 151. 

Breeding, 269, 417. 

investigations needed, 428. 
Brood, 46. 

concentric arrangement of, 56. 

development, 55. 

diseases, 397. 

early arrangement of, 55. 

-emergence, effect on swarming, 
280. 
Brood-rearing cycle, 57. 

end of, 86. 

temperature, 60. 

time of beginning, 55. 

in winter, 347. 
Brood, removal, 283. 

spreading of, 262. 

stages, length of, 60. 

uses after swarming, 275. 
Brush for bees, 31. 
Bulk comb-honey, 318. 

marketing, 330. 
Bulletins on beekeeping, 435. 
Bureau of Entomology, 435. 
Buttel-Reepen, v., 172. 
Buying bees, 222. 

Caging of queen, 281. 
Canada, statistics of beekeeping in, 4. 
Candy for winter food, 345. 
Capping cans, 294. 

melters, 295. 

of cells, 49. 
Care of comb-honey, 316. 
Carniolan bees, 202. 

hive, 9. 
Cartons for comb-honey, 329. 
Casteel, 110, 123. 
Caucasian bees, 196. 

hives, 6, 8. 
Cause of swarming, 75. 



Cellar temperature, 347, 353. 

wintering, 353. 
Cell division, 96. 
Cells, accuracy, 48, 49. 

contents, 49. 
Cellular structure of tissues, 94. 
Cheshire, 111, 112. 
Chilling of brood, 56. 
Chinese- Japanese bees, 203. 
Chorion of egg, 184. 
Chunk honey, 318. 
Circulation, 148. 
Cleaning hives in spring, 259. 

new home, 68. 

sections, 325. 

wax, 337. 
Climate, influence on secretion, 362. 
Clipping queens, 260, 273. 
Closed-end frames, 28. 
Closing the hive, 240. 
Clustering of swarm, 65. 

aids to, 66. 
Cocoon, 51, 101. 
Cold-blooded animals, 59. 
Colonial life, necessity of, 38, 39. 
Color, European foul brood, 402. 

of combs, 51. 

of hives, 30. 

perception, 169. 
Comb-building, 68, 108. 

plan in, 51. 

description, 46. 

-foundation, 28, 340. 

-honey marketing, 325. 

-honey production, 301. 

-honey production decreasing, 303. 
Commercial breeders, 417. 
Complete metamorphosis, 100. 
Compound eyes, 166. 

hairs, 104. 
Condensation in hive, 345. 
Confinement in winter, 356. 
Conservation of heat, 90. 
Constancy of workers, 119. 
Consumption of colony, 364. 
Contents of cells, 49. 
Contraction of swarms, 278. 
Control of natural swarms, 272. 
Cook, 113. 

Cooking, honey in, 433. 
Co-operative selling, 333. 



Index 



451 



Courses in beekeeping, 225. 
Cowan, 113. 

Critical temperature, 90. 
Crop reports on honey, 434. 
Cross-pollination, 6, 365. 
Cultivation of plants for nectar, 363. 
Cut comb-honey, 319. 
Cutter, comb-foundation, 33. 
Cycle of duties of worker, 104. 

of the year, 54. 
Cyprian bees, 196. 

Dadant apiaries, 219. 

hive, 10. 
Danger from poor investigation, 36. 
Dead bees in cellar, 352. 
Decrease in comb-honey, 303. 
Defence of colony, 117. 
Delayed swarms, 71. 
Demand for fancy comb-honey, 303. 
Demuth, 301. 
Demuth's observations on swarming, 

77. 
Dequeening, 281. 

for European foul brood, 409. 
Desertion of swarms, 278. 
Developmental stages, 93, 102. 
Digestion, 141. 
Disadvantages of comb-honey, 304. 

of extracted-honey, 287. 
Disease, effects of, 215. 
Diseases of bees, 397. 
Disinfection of hives, 406. 

of honey, 407. 
Disposal of combs after extracting, 

300. 
Dissolving wax, 337. 
Disturbance, effect, 60. 

harmful, 234. 

in winter, 347. 
Distribution of bees, 213. 
Division of labor, 106. 

in gathering, 120. 
Domestic animals, bees not, 38. 
Donhoff, 108. 
Doolittle cell cups, 422. 
Door for honey-house, 24. 
Double-walled hives, 352. 
Drainage in cellar, 354. 
Drawn combs, 290. 
Dreyling, 109. 



Drifting in spring, 256. 
Drone cell, 46. 

description, 44. 

duties, 106. 

food, 116. 

killing, 86. 

-laying queens, 70. 

selection, 428. 
Drones, retained in queenless colo- 
nies, 45. 
Dufour, 57. 
Duration of life, 126. 
Dysentery, 356, 409. 
Dzierzon, 8, 9. 

theory, 187. 

Early embryonic development, 96. 
Educational work, 434. 
Egg, 95. 

-laying, normal, 41. 

-laying restriction, 281. 

origin, 181. 
Eggs which fail to hatch, 191. 
Egyptian bees, 194. 
Embryology, 93. 
Emulsion of wax, 338. 
Enemies of bees, 411. 
English hive, 10. 
Entrance in winter, 352. 
Enzymes in ripening, 85. 
Equalizing colonies, 259, 313. 
Equipment, importance of, 22. 
Essentials in beekeeping, 251. 
European foul brood, 401. 
Excretion, 153. 

Experience in behavior work advan- 
tageous, 36. 
Extracted-honey marketing, 320. 

-honey production, 286. 

wax, 337. 
Extracting, 298. 
Extractors, 296. 
Extra-floral nectaries, 370. 
Eyes, 166. 

Fall treatment for disease, 408. 
Fanning in winter cluster, 91. 

of swarming bees, 66. 
Farmer-beekeepers, disadvantages of, 

2, 3. 
Fat body, 153. 



452 



Index 



Feces, effects in winter, 356. 

in winter, 89, 91. 

of young bees, 107. 

retention, 147. 
Feeders, 33, 242. 
Feeding, 240. 

for winter, 345. 

of larva, 101, 111. 
Fertilization of egg, 96. 
Field duties of workers, 105. 
Flight, length of bee's, 19. 

of-queen, 69. 

organs of, 115. 
Flowers, finding of, 177. 
Food, 142. 

for winter, 344. 

of larvee, composition, 115. 

of larvae, source, 111. 
Formic acid in honey, 84. 
Foul brood, 398. 
Foundation in sections, 311. 

need of, 239. 
Frames, handling, 237. 
Fraternal relations of beekeepers, 3, 

14. 
Fruit-growing, value of bees in, 6, 7, 

366. 
Fumigation for moths, 414. 
Function of nectar, 360. 

Galleria mellonella, 411. 

Gates, 177. 

Gathering instinct, development, 

108. 
German bees, 107, 200. 

hive, 7, 9. 
Gerstung theory of swarming, 79. 
Giant bees, 193. 

comparison of nest, 52. 

comparison in deserting nest, 81. 
Glands of head, 111. 
Glazed sections, 329. 
Gloves, 31. 

Grading comb-honey, 326. 
Granulated honey, marketing, 330. 
Granulation of wax, 338. 

prevention, 325. 
Gravenhorst hive, 7, 9. 
Gravity strainers, 299. 
Grecian bees, 196. 
Greek hive, 6, 8. 



Growth of larva, 100, 
Guarding of colony, 117. 

Head, description, 134. 
Hearing, 175. 
Heart, 148. 
Heat, conservation, 90. 

source, 59, 91. 
Heating honey, 324. 
Heat in winter, source, 346. 
Hemiptera, source of honey-dew, 

371. 
Hermaphrodite bees, 190. 
Hershiser press, 336. 
Hibernation impossible, 88. 
Hive and hive parts, 26. 

arrangement, 231. 

finding of, 178. 

for comb-honey, 306. 

for extracted-honey, 288. 
Hivers, automatic, 274. 
Hive stands, 26. 

tools, 31. 
Hiving a swarm, 272. 
Hoarding for winter, 88. 
Hoffman frames, 28. 
Holy Land bees, 195. 
Home market, development, 332. 
Honey-dew, insect, 371. 

-dew in winter, 356. 

-dew plant, 370. 

-flow, influence on brood-rearing, 
86. 

-flow variations, 206. 

-house, 23, 292, 306. 

-plants, 359. 

-pump, 300. 

ripening, 84. 

-stomach, structure, 113. 

storing, 81. 

uses, 432. 
Hoosier School Boy, bee-house in, 

9, 10. 
Hopkins method of queen-rearing, 

421. 
House for extracting, 292. 
Houses for bees, 9, 10. 
Human concepts given to bees, 35. 
Humidity in winter, 345. 
Hunger swarm, '80. 
Hymenoptera, 37. 



Index 



453 



Identification of plants difficult, 360. 

Imbedding wire in foundation, 29. 

Importation of wax, 342. 

Improvement of stock, 427. 

Inbreeding, 429. 

Incomplete metamorphosis, 100. 

Increase, 284. 

Indiana, variations in swarming, 

77. 
Individual service, 319. 
Insect honey-dew, 371. 
Inside labor of the hive, 107. 

labor of young bees, 104. 
Inspection laws, 432. 
Instinct has physical basis, 104. 

limitations of, 34, 38. 

of gathering, 84. 

to swarm, 75. 
Introducing cages, 426. 
Inversion of sugar, 84, 241. 
Irish hive, 10. 
Isle of Wight disease, 410. 
Italian bees, 107, 197. 

for European foul brood, 408. 

Labels, 322, 331. 
Langstroth hive, 8, 26. 
Larval development, 100. 

diseases, 397. 

food, source, 111. 
Later embryonic development, 98. 
Laws concerning beekeeping, 431. 

spraying, 368. 
Leaf hopper, source of honey-dew, 

371. 
Learning beekeeping, 224. 
Legal rights to bee range, 16. 
Legs, 99, 102, 157. 
Lesser wax-moth, 414. 
Leveling hive, 239. 
Lifting honey, 300. 
Light in winter cellar, 353. 
List of honey-plants, 372. 
Literature on bees, 430. 
"Locality" and variation in practice, 
34. 

differences, 82, 205. 
Location for apiary, 18. 

for swarm, 274. 
Locomotion, 154. 
Losses in winter, 343. 



Mclndoo, 169. 

Mailing cages, 426. 

Malpighian tubes, 98, 153. 

Mandibles, 135. 

Manipulation for comb-honey, 313. 

of bees, object, 234. 
Marketing bulk comb-honey, 330. 

comb-honey, 325. 

extracted-honey, 320. 

granulated honey, 330. 

honey, 320. 

wax, 339. 
Mating flight, 69. 

nuclei, 425. 

of queen, 42. 
Mechanical swarming devices, 284. 
Mellifera vs. mellifica, 37. 
Mellifica, varieties, 194. 
Memory, 179. 

lost in swarming, 74. 
Metabolism, 150. 
Metamorphosis, 100. 
Methods of spread of diseases, 403. 

of wintering, 349. 
Microsporidiosus, 410. 
Migratory beekeeping, 216. 
Miller, C. C, 267, 271. 

method of queen-rearing, 419. 
Minor sources of nectar, 364. 
Mixing honeys, 322. 
Moisture in winter, 345. 
Motion picture of bees, 72. 
Moults of larva, 103. 
Mouth-parts, 138. 

Movement, basis for behavior in- 
vestigations, 35. 
Moving bees, 250. 

staples for, 33. 
Muscular activity, source of heat, 
91. 

Nassenoff, 172. 
Natural nest, 46. 
Nectar, function, 360. 

gathering, 81. 

gathering instinctive, 184. 

present loss of, 4. 

sources, 359. 
Nelson, 94. 
Nervous system, 162. 
Nest, arrangement, 50. 



454 



Index 



Net weight of sections, 327. 
Non-essential manipulations, 251. 
Non-swarming appliances, 269. 
Nosema apis, 410. 
Nucleus, a part of the cell, 94. 

for mating queens, 425. 

defined, 39. 
Nursery cages, 425. 

OceUi, 168. 

Odor, American foul brood, 400. 

effects in uniting, 243. 

European foul brood, 402. 

in entering hive, 68. 

in swarm clustering, 65. 

in swarming-out, 81. 
Odors of colony, 172. 
(Enocytes, 153. 
Olfactory sense, 169. 
Opening a hive, 235. 
Organizations of beekeepers, 431. 
Orientation, 244. 
Out-apiaries, 232. 

-apiary house, 25. 

-door colonies, 52. 

-door wintering, 350. 
Outside work of workers, 118. 
Ovaries, 181. 

Overproduction, fear of, 5. 
Overstocking, 218. 

Packing cases, 351. 

in winter, 350. 
Palestine hives, 5, 8. 
Paralysis, 410. 
Parent colony, 69. 
Parthenogenesis, 186. 
Petersen, 114. 
Pharyngeal glands, 111. 
Philosophy, bees as basis for, 35. 
Pickled brood, 402. 
Pipe, German beekeeper's, 30. 
Plain sections, 308. 
Plan of body of bee, 133. 
Planta, v., 115. 
Plant honey-dew, 370. 
Plateau, 117. 
Play nights, 105. 
Poetic conception of bees, 35. 
Point of view in behavior investiga- 
tions, 35. 



Poison, 160. 

immunity to, 13. 
Poisonous honeys, 369. 
Pollen, cells for storage, 50. 

gathering, 85, 123, 365. 

in larval food, 115. 

in winter, 358. 

plants, 359. 

source of enzymes, 85. 

substitutes, 263. 
Popular works on bees often faulty, 

36. 
Portable extracting outfits, 293. 
Porto Rican apiary, 19. 
Position of supers, 314. 
Post-constructed queen cells, 62. 
Power extractors, 297. 
Pre-constructed queen cells, 62. 
Premature swarms, 74. 
Presses for wax, 335. 
Preventive manipulations, 270. 

measures, 268. 
Professional beekeepers, 2. 

beekeeping, advantages, 16. 
Profits in beekeeping, 19-21. 
Propolis, 85, 117. 

collection, 126. 

removal, 325. 

used in natural nest, 52. 
Protection in spring, 257. 

in winter, object, 344. 

of larva, 100. 

of nest, 52. 
Proteid digestion, 147. 
Protoplasm, 94. 
Proventriculus, 113. 
Pump for honey, 300. 
Puncturing of fruit, 368. 
Pupa, external changes, 102. 
Purity of comb-honey, 301. 

of race, 429. 

Queen and drone trap, 32, 273. 
breeders, 417. 
cells, 49, 62. 
cells, saving of, 419. 
description, 40. 
-excluder, 277. 
food, 116. 
in swarming, 63. 
mating flight, 69. 



Index 



455 



Queen-rearing, 417. 

-rearing conditions, 62, 419. 
Queen's action in swarming, 65. 

classification, 426. 
Questionable manipulations, 261. 

Races, 192. 

Rearing of queens, 417. 

Reaumur, 48. 

Red clover bees, 200. 

Regional differences, 205. 

Regions of United States, 207. 

Remedial manipulations, 278. 

measures, 272. 
Removal of brood, 283. 
Removing honey for extracting, 291. 
Rendering wax, 334. 
Reports on honey crop, 434. 
Reproductive processes, 181. 
Requeening, 282, 418. 
Requirements of wintering, 344. 
Respiration, 151. 
Restricted regions, 211. 
Restrictions in comb-honey produc- 
tion, 305. 

of egg-laying, 281. 
Results to be expected, 19-21. 
Retail honey packages, 321. 
Reversible extractors, 294. 
Rewards for adulterated comb-honey, 

302. 
Ripe fruit not injured by bees, 368. 
Ripening of honey, 117. 
Robbing, prevention, 249. 
Roof apiary, 18, 19. 
Ropiness, American foul brood, 399. 

European foul brood, 402. 
Royal jelly, source, 111. 
Rudiments of organs in embryo, 97. 

Sacbrood, 402. 

Sage region, 210. 

Salivary glands of worker, 111. 

Scale, American foul brood, 399. 

Scent gland, 65. 

in entering hive, 68. 
Schiemenz, 112. 
Schonfeld, 112. 
Scouts for swarms, 67. 
Scraping sections, 325. 
Search for good locations, 360. 



Seat for apiary, 31, 32. 
Second swarms, 71. 
Sections, evolution of, 307. 

preparation, 311. 

types, 308. 
Segmentation of embryo, 98. 
Selling honey, 332. 
Semi-arid region, 210. 
Semi-pupa stage, 103. 
Sense organs, 165. 
Settling wax, 337. 
Sex determination, 188. 

of workers, 62. 
Shaking treatment, 404. 
Shipping bees, 223. 

cases, 328. 

comb-honey, 329. 
Sight, 166. 
Silk gland, origin, 98. 

of cocoon, 101. 
Site of apiary, 228. 
Size of apiary, 232. 

of the colony, 39. 
Skill, importance of, 22. 
Sladen, 172. 
Slaughter of drones, 44. 
Sleep of bees, 50. 
Slumgum, 336. 
Smell, 169. 
Smoker, 29, 30. 
Snodgrass, 113, 114, 132, 439. 
Social bees, 192. 
Solar wax extractor, 335. 
Sources of nectar and pollen, 359. 
South-eastern region, 209. 
Spacing of frames, 28. 
Spermatheca, 182. 
Spermatozoa, origin, 184. 
Spraying, damage from, 367. 

laws, 432. 

trees in bloom, 366. 
Spreading the brood, 262. 
Spring activities, 55. 

dwindling, 128, 258, 358, 410. 

management, 255. 
Statistics of beekeeping, 4. 
Steam-heated knife, 294. 
Stimulative feeding, 261. 
Sting, 158. 

Stingless bees, comparison of nest, 53. 
Sting of queen, 42. 



456 



Index 



Stings, remedies, 236. 
Stomach-mouth, 113. 

of larva, 100. 
Storage cells, 47. 

for comb-honey, 25, 317. 

in worker bees, 105. 

tanks, 299. 
Stores for winter, 344. 
Strained honey, 286. 
Straining honey, 298. 
Structure of comb, 47. 
Sugar digestion, 146. 

syrup for food, 240. 
Sun, exposure to, 229. 
Super manipulation, 289, 314. 

for extracted-honey, 289. 

removal, 316. 

types, 309. 
Supplies, 432. 
Surplus, sources, 359. 
Swamp sources, advantages, 363. 
Swarm activity, 72. 

box, 422. 

catcher, 66. 

control, 78, 265, 313. 

description of, 63. 
Swarming, 61. 

causes loss, 265. 

fever, 74. 

-out, 80. 

preparations, 62. 
Swarms, artificial, 283. 

on one support, 66. 
Symbols, 439. 

Symptoms, American foul brood, 
398. 

European foul brood, 401. 

sacbrood, 402. 
Syrian bees, 195. 
System essential, 253. 

in extracted-honey, 290. 

Tanks for storage, 299. 
Taste, 174. 
Taxonomy, 37. 

Temperature, effect on brood-rear- 
ing, 87. 

in winter cellar, 347, 353. 

of colony, 59, 60. 

responses in winter, 89, 90. 

sense, 176. 



Temperature variation within hive, 

61. 
Term of life of worker, 44. 
Testes, 184. 
Thorax, 139. 

not typical, 99. 

origin, 99. 
Time to handle bees, 235. 
Tongue, 138. 
Touch, 174. 
Townsend 291. 
Tracheal system, 152. 
Transferring colonies, 245. 

larvae, 422. 
Transition cells, 48. 
Treatment, European foul brood, 
408. 

of brood diseases, 403. 
Tropics, gathering by bees in, 84. 
T-super, 309. 
Types of bees in colony, 39. 

Unbalanced condition of swarming 

colonies, 280. 
Uncapping, 293. 

cans, 294. 
United States, statistics of bee- 
keeping in, 4. 
Uniting, 243. 
Uses of honey, 432. 
of wax, 340. 

Van Deusen hive clamp, 33. 
Variation in honey-flows, 83. 

in nectar, 361. 

in regions, 54. 

in secretion, 362. 

in swarming, 266. 

in value of plants, 206. 

of colonies in swarming, 267. 

within a region, 212. 
Veil, 30. 
Ventilation in winter, 346. 

of cellar, 353. 
Ventriculus, 112. 

Walking, 157. 

Water collection, 85, 126. 

need of, 258. 

source in winter, 345. 
Wax building, 68. 



Index 



457 



Wax-moth, 117, 411. 

presses, 335. 

production, 334, 340. 

source, 108, 109, 110. 
White clover region, 207. 
Wholesale packages for extracted- 

honey, 320. 
Wide frames, 310. 
"Wiley lie," 302. 
Wind, effects, 352. 
Windows of honey-house, 24 
Wings, 154. 

origin, 99, 102. 
Winter breeding, 87. 

cluster, 88. 



Winter cluster in cells, 50. 

flights, 92. 
Wintering, 343. 

aster honey for, 374. 
Wiring frames, 29. 
Wooden cell cups, 422. 
Worker cell, 46. 

description, 43. 
Women, beekeeping for, 15. 

Young bees, duties, 107. 
queens in swarming, 76. 

Zander, 410. 

Zoological position of bees, 37. 



Printed in the United States of America. 



'HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects 



The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

With the Assistance of over 500 Collaborators 

New edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged, with matiy new features ; 

with 24 plates in color, q6 full-page half-tones and 

over 4,000 text illustrations 

To be complete in six volumes Sold only in sets by subscription 



The Country Gentleman's Companion The Gardener's Manual 
The Amateur's Guide The Student's Textbook 

The Botanist's Treasure The Teacher's Library 



This, the fullest, the newest, the most authoritative of all works 
of its kind, supersedes the old Cyclopedia of American Horticulture 
first issued fourteen years ago. "The Standard Cyclopedia of Hor- 
ticulture" is an entirely new work, freshly written throughout with 
the assistance of 500 collaborators. It represents the most recent 
research, labor and experience, and compresses the whole story of 
thought, learning, and achievement on the subject into one set of 
six large, handsome quarto volumes. 



TWO OPINIONS OF THE NEW CYCLOPEDIA 

" No one who knows anything at all about the literature of gar- 
dening needs to be told that the Cyclopedia is unique. It is the 
Bible and Britannica of the garden -folk, amateur and professional 
alike. And the remarkable thing is that while it is fundamentally a 
work of reference, it also contains limitless quantities of good read- 
ing of the sort dear to the heart of the garden enthusiast. " : — The 
Nation. 

" It is no exaggeration to state that Bailey's new work is the best 
Cyclopedia obtainable for all who are connected, either remotely or 
intimately, as amateurs or professionals, with horticultural pursuits." 
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Two Important Books Rewritten and Brought Up to Date 

Principles of Fruit-Growing 

By L. H. BAILEY. New Edition, revised and rewritten 

Illustrated, i2mo, $1.75 
Since the original publication of this book in 1897, it has gone 
through a total of nineteen editions. The progress of fruit-growing in 
the meantime has been very marked and it has now become necessary 
to rewrite this work. The present issue of it brings the accounts of the 
new practices and discoveries as they relate to fruit-growing up to date. 
It gives the latest information and points of view on fertilizers and 
different kinds of fruits, the heating of orchards to protect them from 
frost, the treatment of diseases and insects, full discussions with dia- 
grams of the methods of laying out orchards and much other subject 
matter. This revision continues the text as standard. The illustra- 
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Plant-Breeding 



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Revised by A. W. GILBERT, Professor of Plant-Breeding in the New York State 
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Illustrated, cloth, i2mo, $2.00 

The original foundation for this book is Professor Bailey's standard 
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Electricity for the Farm 

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By FREDERICK IRVING ANDERSON 

Author of " The Farmer of To-morrow " 
Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, $r.2c; 

A year or so ago there was published an exceedingly 
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as was put into this one, and the author, Frederick Irving 
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same field. The announcement, therefore, of the appear- 
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farmers and students of agricultural matters. 

Mr. Anderson believes that many farmers are not mak- 
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very little expense, a farmer may have all the benefits of 
electricity for light, heat, and power either by installing a 
simple gasoline engine or by using the neglected brook that 
runs through some part of the farm lands. As he points 
out, a mighty stream is not necessary to secure sufficient 
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TWO IMPORTANT NEW WORKS 

The Strawberry in North America 

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most cosmopolitan of American fruits, second only to the apple in 
commercial importance. The volume includes chapters on the 
early history of the strawberry in the old world and the new, the 
botany and origin of the cultivated strawberry, the rise of straw- 
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ferent parts of the country, with something of an attempt to eluci- 
date the principles that underlie these practices. 

Principles of Floriculture 

By EDWARD A. WHITE 

Professor of Floriculture in the New York State College of Agriculture 
at Cornell University 

The flower-growing business has become highly specialized. 
Science has, therefore, come to be an important factor in flower 
production, and there has arisen a demand for scientific informa- 
tion regarding all lines of floriculture. The purpose of the author 
of this book has been to consider the principles which underlie the 
successful culture of ornamental plants, and to present these in 
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is believed that it will also be of service in a practical way to prac- 
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dies, and the factors which underlie successful culture of standard 
florists' crops. 

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RURAL TEXT- BOOK SERIES 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 
Each volume illustrated. Clcth, 12mQ 9 



While the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES is designed primarily for 
popular reading and for general use, this related new series is designed 
for classroom work and for special use in consultation and reference. 
The RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES is planned to cover eventually 
the entire range of public school and college texts. 

Duggar, B. M. 

Physiology of Plant Production $1 60 

Duggar, John Frederick 

Southern Field Crops 1 75 

Gay, C. Warren 

Principles and Practice of Judging Live-Stock . 1 50 

Harper, M. W. 

Animal Husbandry for Schools 1 40 

Hitchcock, A. S. 

Grasses 1 50 

Livingston, George 

Field Crop Production 1 40 

Lyon, T. L. and Fippin, E. O. 

Principles of Soil Management 1 75 

Mann, A. R. 

Beginnings in Agriculture 75 

Montgomery, G. F. 

Corn Crops 1 60 

Piper, Charles V. 

Forage Plants and Their Culture 1 75 

Warren, G. F. 

Elements of Agriculture 1 10 

Warren, G. F. 

Farm Management . . = 1 75 

Wheeler, H. J. 

Manures and Fertilizers 1 oU 

White, Edward A. 

Principles of Floriculture Preparing 

Widtsoe, John A. 

Principles of Irrigation Practice 1 to 



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A series of practical books for farmersand gardeners, sold as a set or separately. 
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well bound. 

ON SELECTION OF LAND, ETC. 

Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead $1 50 

T. F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm 1 75 

E. S. Cheyney and J. P. Wentling's The Farm Woodlot ... 1 50 
Glenn W. Herrick's Insects Injurious to the Household ... 1 75 

ON TILLAGE, ETC. 

F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 

Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land 1 50 

F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 

Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers 1 25 

Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops 1 50 

J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture 1 25 

S. M. Tracy's Forage Crops for the South 1 50 

ON PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 

E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants 1 25 

ON GARDEN-MAKING 

L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book 1 25 

L. H. Bailey's Plant Breeding 2 00 

ON FRUIT-GROWING, ETC. 

L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book 1 50 

L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing (New Edition) 1 75 

L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book 1 50 

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 

W. Paddock & O. B. Whipple's Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions . 1 50 

J. E. Coit's Citrus Fruits 2 00 

S. W. Fletcher's The Strawberry in North America. Preparing 

ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK 

Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 50 

W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 50 

I. P. Roberts' The Horss 1 25 

M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses 1 75 

George C. Watson's Farm Poultry. New edition 1 50 

John A. Craig's Sheep Farming 1 50 

ON DAIRY WORK, FARM CHEMISTRY, ETC. 

Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products. New edition .... 1 50 

J. G. Lipman's Bacteria and Country Life 1 50 

ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION 

William A. McKeever's Farm Boys and Girls 1 50 

I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook 1 25 

George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare 1 25 

H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50 

J. Green's Law for the American Farmer 1 50 

G. H. Powell's Cooperation in Agriculture 1 50 

J. B. Morman's Principles of Rural Credits 125 



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